TeAppamsdcFior Release 2000/OtftFeOA-RDP96-00789RO%VMI-4000fb-2 AVA06wM W 0 so qll~a ScienceAWficadons International Corporation An Employee-Owned Company Presented to: The Scientific Oversight Committee Submitted by: Science Applications International Corporation Cognitive Sciences Laboratory 1010 El Camino Real, Suite 330 Menlo Park, California 94025 10 10 El Camino Real, Suite 330, P. 0. Box 1412, Menlo Park, CA 94025 (415) 325-8292 0 UNEDITED DRAFT TOA"fMqr-~lt4WFDW9*s&MKM7ft~-UOOdRREP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 DRAFT TABLE OF CONTENTS I OBJECrIVE ................................................................ 1 II BACKGROUND ............................................................ 2 III APPROACH ................................................................ 3 1. Receiver Selection ....................................................... 3 2. Thrget Selection ......................................................... 3 3. Trial Definition .......................................................... 3 4. Lucid Dream Protocol .................................................... 3 5. AC Baseline Measures .................................................... 3 6. Lucid Dream Thal Protocol ............................................... 4 7. Analysis ................................................................ 4 IV DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS ......................................... 5 V GLOSSARY ................................................................ 6 REFERENCES ...................................................................... 7 APPENDIX ......................................................................... 8 2Mbj§RT-ED Paj - Approved For Release fua . EP96-00789RO03100140001'2 Te&wavM&q,r A%6-m§~saq1P&WcuLqWWs96 -00789 ROO 3100140001-2 DRAFT L OBJECTIVE The objective of this investigation is to determine if anomalous cognition can be ovserved during a lucid drearn.* ' Definitions of ternis can be found in Section V (i.e., Glossary) on page 6. Approved For Release 8108 - 6ftPff96-00789ROO3100140001-2 MfflrTED 1 TeAMPSfWggcFoPrARWOPAOMMOBIO&UcQliAr4ROP96-00789ROO3100140001.2 DRAFT ILBACKGROUND Dreams involving putative anomalous cognition (AC) have been part of every human culture from the times of ancient Greece to the present. The first serious attempt, however, to examine AC in dreams under controlled conditions began under the direction of Montague Ullman, MD in 1962 at the Com- munity Mental Health Center of the Maimonides Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York. The re- search of AC in dreams continued until 1972 where the dream protocol was abandoned in favor of a simpler and more rapid approach to the study of AC. Child has summarized and critiqued this body of research in the American Psychologist. " In these studies, individuals were asked to sleep in a laboratory and be monitored for brain activity and eye movement. From these records, it was possible to tell when they were dreaming. Upon the onset of rapid eye movement (REM), an experimenter notified a sender, who was isolated in a remote laborato- ry, to begin attending to a randomly selected target. At the end of the REM period, the dreamer was awakened and asked to report the dream content. This procedure was repeated throughout the night using the same target material for each separate dream (e.g., up to ten). The assessment of the AC content was accomplished through independent judges. As described by Child, significant evidence for AC was observed under a variety of conditions. The dreamers in these studies, however, were not necessarily focused upon the AC task. They slept as usual and, when asked, reported their dream content. In our pilot study we will focus the dreamer ex- plicitly on the AC task using the methods of lucid dreaming. A lucid dream is one during which the sleeper beconies conscious aware that the experience is a dream as opposed to the waking state. LaBerge et a]. (1981) have found that it is possible for dreamers to know when they dreaming and to signal the waking world, through predetermined eye movements, indicating their awareness.2 Using this ability, LaBerge et al. (1986 and 1988) conducted a number of psychophy- siological studies to determine the differences between waking and dreaming from that prospective.3,4 They found that dreaming is similar to the waking state. Motor action is mostly inhibited from the brain stem downward; however, the cerebral cortex appears not to "know" this. In this preliminary pilot study, we will use the skills developed by LaBerge to teach individuals to lucid dream. Differing from the earlier AC dream studies, Our dreamers will be instructed to adopt a proac- tive attitude to seek out and remember the AC target. In this way, we will determine the degree to which lucid dreaming can facilitate the reception of AC material. References may be found at the end of the document and are inc)uded in their entirety in the Appendix. Approved For Release 20ffi-a Pf~L9160JJ"6-00789RO03100140001.Z 154 Eb TeAWR)60c)t6irAgl#M§&Z%QMPAULqMapps96-00789ROO3100140001-2 DRAFT Ill. APPROACH 1. Receiver Selection We will use two specialize populations from which to draw receivers for this pilot experiment: (1) Experienced dreamers from LaBerg's research subjects, and (2) Receivers who have demonstrated significant ability in other AC studies. Currently, five and seven individuals have volunteered, respectively. 2. Target Selection Targets will be chosen randomly from the standard set of 100 National Geographic magazine photographs. 3. Trial Definition A trial is defined as a successful lucid dream during which the target material was examined and later transcribed in the waking state. 4. Lucid Dream Protocol All receivers will undertake two forms of training in lucid dreaming: (1) They will complete a lucid dreaming home-study course developed by the Lucidity Institute (i.e., a subcontractor to SAIC), and (2) they will attend two weekend seminars, one at the beginning and one at the end of the proposed three-month pilot study. The first seminar, which was held in December, 1991, introduced receivers to lucid dreaming skills and the the use of the DreamLight, a lucid dream induction device. In previous studies, the DreamLight has been shown to enhance the frequency of lucid dreaming. The DreamLight consists of a sleep mask equipped with lights and eye movement sensors, which are attached to a small battery-operated computer. When the computer detects the eye movements of dreaming (i.e., REM) sleep, it causes the lights in the mask to flash briefly (i.e., either one or two flashes per second). The dreamer frequently incorporates the flashes into the ongoing dream, and thus experiences a cue to indi- cate that he or she is dreaming. Receivers will have free access to DreamLights during the duration of the study. 5. AC Baseline Measures Each receiver will be asked to contribute eight trials in a waking state in the Cognitive Sciences Labora- tory as an AC baseline series. The targets for this series will be chosen at random from a standardized target set that was developed from an earlier program. Each trial will be conducted as follows: After the Approved For Release 2ML08LO&' CM- W6-00789ROO3100140001 EDI D TeAppftVG*Eo:rA:aehwa&ZMOMWO&uC,dA~r5QR96-00789ROO3100140001-2 DRAFT Ill. APPROACH 1. Receiver Selection We will use two specialize populations from which to draw receivers for this pilot experiment: (1) Experienced dreamers from LaBerg's research subjects, and (2) Receivers who have demonstrated significant ability in other AC studies. Currently, five and seven individuals have volunteered, respectively. 2. Target Selection Targets will be chosen randomly from the standard set of la) National Geographic magazine photographs. 3. Trial Definition A trial is defined as a successful lucid dream chiring which the target material was examined and later transcribed in the waking state. 4. Lucid Dream Protocol All receivers will undertake two forms of training in lucid dreaming: (1) They will complete a lucid dreaming home-study course developed by the Lucidity Institute (i.e., a subcontractor to SAIC), and (2) they will attend two weekend seminars, one at the beginning and one at the end of the proposed three-month pilot study. The first seminar, which was held in December, 1991, introduced receivers to lucid dreaming skills and the the use of the DreamLight, a lucid dream induction device. In previous studies, the DreamLight has been shown to enhance the frequency of lucid dreaming. The DreamLight consists of a s)~eep mask equipped with lights and eye movement sensors, which are attached to a small battery-operated computer. When the computer detects the eye movements of dreaming (i.e., REM) sleep, it causes the lights in the mask to flash briefly (i.e., either one or two flashes per second). The dreamer frequently incorporates the flashes into the ongoing dream, and thus experiences a cue to indi- cate that he or she is dreaming. Receivers will have free access to DreamLights during the duration of the study. 5. AC Baseline Measures Each receiver will be asked to contribute eight trials in a waking state in the Cognitive Sciences Labora- tory as an AC baseline series. The targets for this series will be chosen at random from a standardized target set that was developed from an earlier program. Each trial will be conducted as follows: After the Approved For Releasn62DQWORLOB:-MA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 LT14EDITE URAFT 3 TqNpotftdcreoirRatemses2ftWO&ML:uQbbgRW6-00789ROO3100140001-2 DRAFT receiver and an experimenter (i.e., called a monitor) enter the AC laboratory (i.e., an office with a single desk and two chairs), an assistant will use a computer random number generator to select a target from the baseline target pool. Both the receiver and the monitor will be blind to this specific choice. At a pre-arranged time, the monitor will encourage the receiver to draw and write impressions of the target material, which is located approximately 50 meters away. After approximately 15 minutes of casual questioning, the trial will end; the data will be copied; the originals will be secured; and the actual target will be presented as feedback to the receiver. The analysis will be discussed below. 6. Lucid Dream Trial Protocol During the study, each receiver will attempt to provide six AC trials in a lucid dream state according to the following procedure: (1) Each receiver will receive a sealed opaque envelope containing a target photograph chosen ran- domly from a predetermined set of 100. Receivers will place the target envelope in the room in which they are sleeping. (2) Using the DreamLight, they will attempt, while dreaming, to open the envelope, memorize its con- tent, and awaken as soon as possible. (3) In the waking state, they will write and draw their impressions in detail. (4) During the next day, they will mail the unopened envelope and their response to the principal in- vestigator (PI) for analysis. Upon receipt, the PI will send back a copy of the target photograph as feedback and an additional sealed envelope for the next trial. This procedure will be repeated until six trials are obtained from each receiver. 7. Analysis '11aditional rank-ordering will be the method of analysis. The set of 100 National Geographic magazine photographs have been divided into 20 packets of five targets each. Within each pack, the targets have been selected to be as visually different from one another as possible. (A series of fuzzy sets were used to provide a quantitative method that was "fine tuned" by human judgment.) When a target is chosen from one of the target packs, the remaining four targets are considered as "decoy" targets for an analyst. For each trial, an analyst, is given the AC response and the target pack (i.e., five targets) from which the actual target was chosen. The analyst is required to rank order the targets from best to least match to the given response, regardless of the quality of the matches. The rank that is assigned to the intended target represents the value of the dependent variable for the trial. A sum-of-ranks is then computed for all the trials for each receiver, and effect sizes and p-values are determined from the known sum-of- ranks distribution. The effect sizes from the lucid dreaming trials will be compared to each receiver's base line data and to historical AC data that is available for the experienced receivers. Approved For Release. Rlflb:-C]A-p~P96-00789ROO3100140001-2 TE DRA 4 Tappmvvgcre(WAWoa6gsZQWMWL:uG-blbrpepps96-00789ROO3100140001-2 DRAFT IV. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS The primary purpose of this pilot study is to determine if AC is possible in the lucid dream state. Be- cause the trials will be conduced in each receiver's home and is unsupervised, it is possible that the tar- get material can be compromised. By using standard enclosure techniques it is possible to determine if any casual attempt has been made to physically open the target material, but an experienced magician could foil the detection precautions. Thus we will be unable to conclude the existence of AC in a formal sense in this experiment. Knowing the historical effect sizes from other AC studies and from the calibrations of the lucid dreamer population can provide circumstantial evidence of AC. If the the lucid dreaming effect sizes are not significantly smaller than the historical or base line effect sizes, then we will recommend that a careful, laboratory-based study be conducted. Approved For Releasednaaffl &APP96-00789RO03100140001-2 NEUI 5 Te*p0P~ftTARe*e#A8 NDWOWO&CjCWArF&996-00789ROO3100140001-2 DRAFT V. GLOSSARY Not all the terms defined below are germane to the this study, but they are included here for complete- ness. In a typical anomalous mental phenomena (AMP) task, we define: ~ Anomalous Cognition (=-A form of information transfer in which all known sensorial stimuli are absent. That is, some individuals are able to gain access, by an as yet unknown process, to information that is not available to the known sensorial channels. ~Eeceiver-.An individual who attempts to perceive and report information about a target. ~ AgQW-Art individual who attempts to influence a target system. ~Drget-Aii item that is the focus of an AMP task (e.g., person, place, thing, event). ~Thrget Des SnatiQR-A method by which a specific target, against the backdrop of all other possible targets, is identified to the receiver (e.g., geographical coordinates). 10 Sender/Beacoji-An individual who, while receiving direct sensorial stimuli from an intended target, acts as a putative transmitter to the receiver. ~ Wsmi=-An individual who monitors an AC session to facilitate data collection. ~ SgmiDn-A time period during which AC data is collected. ~FrQtQcQI-A template for conducting a structured data collection session. ~Bg5p_Q=--Materia1 that is produced during an AC session in response to the intended target. ~Ee-edback-After a response has been secured, information about the intended target is displayed to the receiver. ~Analyst-An individual who provides a quantitative measure of AC. ~Spectafty-A given receiver's ability to be particularly successful with a given class of targets (e.g., people as opposed to buildings). ~Lucid Dream-A dream during which an individual becomes aware of the dream. Approved For Re1easpjWJWV - fiWff P96-00789ROO3100140001-2 D 6 TeApoftiPedIDE4orA'Zehw&bZWOMWG&uG&4MRGR96-00789ROO3100140001-2 DRAFT REFERENCES 1. Irvin L. Child, "Psychology and Anomalous Observations," American Psychologist, Vol. 40., No. 11, pp. 1219-1230 (November 1985). 2. S. LaBerge, L. E. Nagel, W C. Dement, and V P. Zarcone, Jr., "Lucid Dreaming Verified by Volitional Communication During REM Sleep," Perceptual and Motor Skills, Vol. 52, pp. 727-732 (1981). 3. S. LaBerge, L. Levitan, and W C. Dement, "Lucid Dreaming: Physiological Correlates of Consciousness during REM Sleep," The Joumal of Mind and Behavior, Vol. 7, Nos. 2 and 3, pp.251-258 (1986). 4. The Psychophysiolog ofLucid Dreaming, Ed. J. Gackenbach and S. LaBerge, pp. 135-153, Plenum Press, New York (1988). Approved For Release 6?110~ff& &hAARP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 Toc4pmed(EolkRW~Iut&%WQi$iQiticgl6roW96-00789ROO3100140001-2 DRAFT APPENDIX This appendix contains the full reprints of the following three papers: (1) "Psychology and Anomalous Observations" (2) "Lucid Dreaming Verified by Volitional Communication During REM Sleep" (3) "Lucid Dreaming: Physiological Correlates of Consciousness during REM Sleep" (4) The Psychophysiolo8y of Lucid Dreaming, pp. 135-153 Approved For Re1easqLfflQWQ9ffi8 iaff P96-00789RO031001400%1-2 EDITED Approved For Release 2000108108: CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 PsYchOlogY and Anomalous Observations The QueSlion of ESP in Dreams Irvin L. Child Yale University ABSTRACT fer crit ical re. vBooks by Psyr_~Ologists PurPor"ng 10 Of- iews of research in parapsychology do not use the scientific standards ofdiscourse prevalent in psy"hology F-)Wrimen's a' Ma"nonides )Yedical Center on possible extrasensory perception (ESp) ' , drearm are used to illustrate this point. The e-rperi. ments have received little or no mention in some re- views to which they are clearly pert~ineni. In others, they have been so severely distorted as to give an en- firely erroneous impression of how they were con- ducied. insofar as psychologists are guided by these reviews, they are preventedfrom gaining accurate in- formation about research that. as surveys show, tvould be of wide interest topsychologists as well as to others. In recent ytars, evidence has been accumulating for the occurrence of such anomalies as telepathy and psycbokinesis, but the evidence is not totally con- . vincing. The evidence has come largely from expen- ments by psychologists who have devoted their careers mainly to studying these anomalies, but members of other disciplines, including engineering and physics, have also taken pan. Some psychologists not primarily concerned with parapsychology have taken time out from other professional concerns to explore such anomali&.& for themselves. Of these, some have joined in the experimentation (e.g., Crandall & Hite, 1983, Lowry, 198 1; Radin, 1982). Some have critically re- viewed portions of the evidence (eg., Akem, 1984; Hyman, 1985). Some, doubting that the phenomena could be real, have explored nonrational processes that might encourage belief in their reality (e.g., Ay- croff & Abelson, 1976). Still othM considering the evidence substantial enough to justify a constructive thteoretical effort, have struggled to relate the apparent anomalies to better established knowledge in a way that will render them less anomalous (c.g., Irwin, 1979) or not anomalous at all (e.g., Blackmore, 1994). These psychologists differ widely in their surniise about whether the apparent anomalies in question will eventually be judged real or illusory; but they appear to agree that the evidence to date warrants serious consideration. Serious consideration of apparent anomalies seems an essential part of the procedures of science, regardless of whether it leads to an understanding of n' cw dLscoveries or to an understanding of how per. suasive illu-sions arise. Apparent anOmalics-juSt like the more numerous obxrvations that are not anom. 230 anention only as they be us---can receive appropriate come accurately known to the scientists to whose work they are relevant Much parapsychological re- search is barred ftom being seriously considered be- cause it is either neglected or misrepresented in wr-.t- ings by some psycholoests--among them, some who have placed themselves in a prime position to mediate interaction between parapsychological resewch and the general body of psychological knowledge. In this article, I illustrate this important general point %kith a particular case, that of experimental research on possible ESP in dreams. It is a case of especially great interm but is not unrepresentative of how psycho- logical publications have treated similar anomalim The Maimonides Research Tbe experimental evidence suggesting that dreams may actually be influenced by ESP comes almost en- tirely from a research program carried out at the Maimonides Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York. Among scientists active in parapsychology, this pro- gram is widely known and greatly respected. It has had a major indirect influence on the recent course of parapsychological research, although the great ex- pense of dream-laboratory work has prevented it from being a direct model. None of the Maimonides research A-as published in the journals that are the conventional media for psychology. (The only possible exception is that a summary of one study [Honorton, Krippner, & Ull- man, 1972) appeared in convention proceedings of the American Psychological Association.) Much of it was pubfished in the specialized journals of parapsy- chology. The rest was published in psychiatric or other medical journals, where it would not be noticed by many psychologists. Most of it was summarized in popularized form in a book (Ullman, Krippner, & Vaughan, 1973) in which two of the resewcher's were joined by a popular writer whose own writings are clearly not in the scientific tradition, and the book departs from the pattern of scientific reporting that characterizes the original research reports. November 1985 - American Pswhol*st COPOW I"S by OW An. Nydwksial AMOOMOS. IWL *00J6WX/45AW.7S VaL 40. No. It, 1211~-12)0 1219 Approved For Release 2ooo/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789RP03100140001-2 How, then, would this research come to the at- tention of psychologist-, so that its fi ndi ngs or its errors might in time be evaluated for their significance to the body of systematic observations upon which psy- chology has been and will be built? The experiments at Maimonides were published between about 1966 and 1972. In the years since-now over a decade- five books have been published by academic psy- chologists that purport to offer a scholarly review and evaluation of parapsychological research. They vary in the extent to which they seem addressed to psy- chologists themselves or to their students, but they seem to be the principal route by which either present or future psychologists, unless they have an already established interest strong enough to lead them to search out the original publications, might become acquainted with the experiments on ESP in dreams. I propose to review how these five books have pre- sented knowledge about the experiments. First, how- ever, I must offer a summary of the experiments; without that, my review would make sense only to readers already well acquainted with them. The experiments at Maimonides grew out of Montague Ullman's observations, in his psychiatric practice, of apparent telepathy underlying the content of some dreams reported by his patients-observa- tions parallel to those reported by many other psy- chiatrists.'He sought to determine whether this ap- parent phenomenon would appear in a sleep labora- tory under controlled conditions that would seem to exclude interpretations other than that of ESP. He was joined in this research by psychologist Stanley Krippner, now at the Saybrook Institute in San Fran- cisco, and a little later by Charles Honorton, now head Of the Psychophysical Research Laboratories in Princeton, New Jersey. Encouraged by early findings but seeking to improve experimental controls and identify optimal conditions, these researchers, assisied by numerous helpers and consultants~ tried out %~ar- ious modifications of procedure. No one simple de- scription of procedure, therefore, can be accurate for all of the experiments. But the brief description that follows is not, I believe, misleading as an account of what was generally done. The Experimental Procedure A subject would come to the laboratory to spend the night there as would-be percipient in a study of pos- sible telepathic infiucnce on dreams. He or she met and talked with the person who was going to serve as agent (that is~ the person who would try to send a telepathic message), as well as with the two experi- menters taking part that night, and procedures were Requegs for reprints should be sent to Irvin L. Cbild at the D,- Pa"Ment of Psycholop-, Yak University, P.Q Box I I A~ New Haven. Connecticut 06520.74,47. the percipient I was u a n repeater dctail uni expLained in rc>r whOm not a necessary. When ready to go to bed, ent was wired p up in the usual p r c brain waves 0 and way ror monitonngeye 0 move- on t g b ments, and he d or she ' no further c contact with Or the r d enter until t. s c after agent or Wnt*s the cxperi session pen c rimcoter x in was completed. the ITTlbbcc cc next Th 5 room ie t's sleep c and e at monitored the the percipie begi ffclp nni ng yc i movements of each period (REM), orrapid when Orrap d yi it was reasonablythe centaiii sleeper bly certat would be dream- t inp, notified y the agent pressing a n buzzer. h a y c ge t The agent was remote in a room in the building, provided with icture a target r (and sometimes acces- sory material ic theme of the echoing t picture) ran- domly chosen )o1 from a p of potential targets as the message to be rated concent on. The procedure for random choice t from the Pool of a targ was designed to prevent anyonerom chst knowing the identity of the target. The ~d agent d not open the packet con- taining the targetsolated until for the night (except for the one-way communication). buzzer Whenever signaled'that ent had entered the percip a REM pe- riod, the agent ncentrate was to cc on the target, with the aim of communicatiig it telepathically to the per- cipicnt and thusing the dream influen( the percipient was having. The t was oriented percipic toward trying to receive this 3ut message. of course if clairvoyance and telepathy ossible, are both p the percipient might have used the iat former-t is, might have been pick- ing up information-tly dire from the target picture, without the mediationf o the agent's thoughts or ef- forts. For this e reason, th term general extrasensor)- perception (GESP)d woul be used today, though the researchers moresed often u the term telepathy. Toward the approx'mate end of each REM pe- riod, the percipientawakened was (by intercom) by the monitoring icriter expent and described any dream j usl cxpcTicncedhith (- prodding and question- ing, if necessary,ic percipient though t of course knew in advance what on to do i each awakening). At the end of the night'sc sleep, ti percipient was int&viewed and was asked lions for impre about what the target might have been.ew was of course (Ile in double- blind; neither nor percipieni inter-viewer knew the identity of the he target.) T dream descriptions and moming impressionsassociations and were recorded and later transcribed. The original .-h reports and resear the popular book both presentber a nun of very striking similar- itics between the passages ir dream transcripts and the picture thatA happen to be the night's target. These similaritiesittention, merit ~ yet they should in themselves yieldof no scnsg conviction. F~crhaps any transcript of aming a night's dre contains passages of striking similaritypicture to any to which they might be compared. monides The Mai ressearch, however. consisted of ined carefully p1m experiments designed 1220 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDPk-cM'78t#~~3le(Yic4l3ftf-2109s' Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 to permit evaluation of this hypothesis of random similarity, and I must now turn to that aspect. Results To evaluate the chance hypothesis, the researchers obtained judgments of similarity between the dream content and the actual target for the night, and at the same time obtained judgments of similarity between the dream cbntent and each of the other potential targets in the pool from which the target had been selected at random. The person judging, of course. had no information about which picture had been randomly selected as target', the entire pool (in du- plicatc) was prmnted together, with no clue as to which picture had been the target and which ones had not. Thai is, in the experimental condition a picture was randomly selected from a pool and concentrated on by the agent, and in the control condition a picture was left behind in the pool. Any consistent difference between target and riontarget in similarity to dream content, exceeding what could reasonably be.ascribed to chance, was considered an apparent anomaly. The data available for the largest number of ses sions came from judgments made by jud~cs who had no contact with the experiment except to receive (by mail, generally) the material necessary for budging (transcripts of dreams and interview and a copy of the target pool). For many sessions, judgments were also available from the dreamer-, he or she, of course, made judgments only after completing participation in the experiment as dreamer (except in some series where a separate target pool was used for each night and the dreamer's judgments could be made at the end of the session). For many sessions, judgments were made for the dream transcripts alone and for the total transcript including the morning interview; for con- sistenqy I have used the latter, because it involved judges who had more nearly the same information as the subjects. The only form in which the data are available for all series of sessions is a count of hits and misses. If the actual target was ranked in the upper half of the target pool, for similarity to the dreams and in- terview, the outcome was considered a hit. If the actual target was ranked in the lower half of the pool, the outcome was considered a miss. The hit-or-miss score is presented separately in Table I for judges and for subjects in the first two data columns. Where infor- mation is not supplied for one or the others the reason is generally that it was impossible for the researchers to obtain it, and. for a similar reason the number of cases sometimes varies.' I Of courx, usable judgments could not be obtained frorn the subject in precognitive scss~ons, bocause at the time ofjudging he or she woLdd already know what the target had been. For LiDe F, the single subject was unable to give the extra time mquired for jWging, ard for UDc 0 one of the four subjects failed to make Each data row in Table I refers to one segment of the research, and segments for the mon part arc labeled as they were in the table of U1.1man et a]. (1973, pp. 275-277). Segments that followed the general procedure I described-all-night sessions, with an agent concentrating on the target during each of the percipient's REM period&-are gathered together in the first eight lines, A through H (in five of these seg- ments, al.) but A, C, and H, a single percipient con- tinued throughout a series, and in four of these the percipient was a psychologist). Other types of segments are presented in the rest of the table. Lines 1, 3, and K summafize precognitive sessions; here the target was not selected unti.1 after the dreaming and interview had been completed. The target consisted of a set of stimuli to be presented directly to the percipient after it had been selected in the morning. Lines L and M represent GESP sessions in which the percipient's dreams were monitored and rworded throughout the night, but the agent was anempting to transmit only before the percipient went to sleep or just after, or sporadically. Line N refers to a few clairvoyance ses- sions; these were like the standard GESP sessions ex- cepi that there was no agent (no one knew the identity of the target). FinaUy, Line 0 reports on some GESP sessions in which each dream was considered sepa- rately; these formed a single experiment with four percipient s, comparing nights involving a different target for each REM period with nights involving're- peatf-d use of a single target. Regardless of the type of session (considering the five types I have described), each session feD into one of two categories: (a) pilot sessions, in which either a new dreamer or a new procedure was being tried out; these app= in fines H, Y, and N, or (b) sessions in an experimental series, planned in advance as one or more sessions for each of two or more subjects, or as a number of sessions with the-same dreamer through- out, Most of the researchers' publications were de- voted to the results obtained in the experimental se- ries, but the results of the pilot sessions have also been briefly reported. A glance at the score columns for judges and for subjecis is sufficient to indicate a strong tendency for an excess of hits over misses. If we average the outcome for judges and for subjects, we find that hits exceed misses on every one of the 15 independent lines on which outcome for hits and misses diffm. (On Line E. hits and misses occur with equal froquency.) By a simple sign-test, this outcome would be significant beyond the 0.0001 level. I would not stress the exact value here, for several reasons. There was no advance judgments. In a few of the pilot sessions (Lim H, V~ and N) only the subject's judgment was sought, aDd in some sessions only thai ofonc or more judges. in a few the mean judges, rating was neitha a hit nor a miss but exactly at Lk middle. November 1985 - American Psychologist 1221 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789 3100140001-2 Table I Summary Of Maimonides Results on Tenderpcy for Dr"rns to so Than Uke Nontaraets in Tarcet poni Judged MUke Target Judg"' Subpx=' 8 or t rweLft-q ftugn 'Swi" l6fts V ~n~_ A49- 60=00 GESP: Dreams during mormtored each and reomled REM "wDuVIOut period nght. agent CIJ -transmitting A. I st screensing7 5 10 2 Z - 0.716Z- Ullman, Krippner, 1. & Feldstein (1966) B. 1 st Erwin5 2 6 1 z - 2.5Y'Z Ullman et &1. = (1966) 1. C. 2nd screening4 s 9 3 z - -.250Z 70 UUman (1969) = 1. D, Posin 6 2 6 2 Z - 1.051,Z 5c Ullman (1969) - 1 E. Grayeb 3 5 5 3 Z - -.63C- : Ullman, Krippner, 0 & Z Vaughan(1973) F. 2nd Erwin 8 0 f - 4.930 Ullman & Krippner (1969) G. Van de 6 2 8 0 t - 2.816 Krippner & Castle 2-7 Ullman (1970) H. Pilot sessions53 14 42 22 Z = 4.20b Ullman et a]. 2. 1 (1973) Z Precognition: Dreams monitored and recorded thrOughout night. target e pe~ next day I. 1st Bessent 7 t - 2.814 Krippner. Ullman. & Honorlon (197 1) J. 2nd Bessent 7 t - 2.2r Krippner. Honorton, & K. Pilot sessions Ullman (1972) 2 0 z = 0.6r Uflman et al. (1973) Clairvoyance: Dreams monitored and recorded throughout night; concealed target known to no one N. Pilot sessions 5 3 4 5 Z - 0.98b Z O.DCb Ullman et al. (1973) GESP: Single dreams 0- VaVghan, Harris, 105 98 74 79 Z - 0.63C. Z HorK)rton, Krippner, & Parise P11111. GESP - go ---ft---Y WW" Ullman (1972) For "r* mom - vo P-"~ w-'C- d-ft lot -so V, 1011m, onWed in ovs presww of KxVnwns in a &ones. oonsaw. suporvopft, ` r 10 -tich ffmas," vim v&Aabie, in orcw cot pnonty. tobje. Wboralory "Woru veve also ~:i~ S-0-r- (-In t hft W plan to Merge the outcomes for judges and subjects. sonably be ascribed to cha cc. There is some system- aco' Moreover, the va-riOus series could be split up in other atic-that is, nonrandom urce of anomalous rc- r n Ways. Although I think My organization of the table semblance of dreams to et. t is very reasonable (and I did not notice this outcome Despite its breadIth, "hitting" tendency seems h until after the table was constructed). it is not the to vary greatly ' ;en h The data on single tnh ,fen organization selected by Ullman et al. (1973); their dreams-Line 0-sugges * s table, ifevaluated statistically in this same way, would other extreme, some scpar tno consistency. At the not yield so striking a result ,art.e lines of the table look- What is clear is that the impressive. I %vill next ccoo sider how we may legid- 0sl di tendency toward hits rather than misses cannot rea- mately evaluate the relati statistical significance of tj su GESP: Dreams monitored and recorded throughout night; agent active only at inning or sporadically L. Sensory bombard. 8 0 4 4 Z 3.11b Z = 0. C ment Kripprer, Honomon, . Ullman, Masters, & B~c M. Grateful Dead 7 5 8 4 z 0.61c Z = C Houston (197 1) 0.8 Krippner, Honorlon, & Ullman (1973) 1222 IN ~04etr6jWbV64(1~gist Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP'96V- BUR I Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 against eventual replicability. In the Maimonides se- ries, likewise, three successive replications (Lines C, D, and E in Table 1) yielded no significant result, yet they are part of a program yielding highly significant overall results. if results or such potentially great interest and scientific importance as those of the Maimonides program had been reported on a more conventional topic, one might expect them to be widely and ac- curatcly described in reviews of the field to which they were relevant, and to be analyzed carefully as a basis for sound evaluation of whether replication and extension of the rcscardh were indicated, or of whether errors could be detected and understood. What has happened in this instance of anomalous research findings'? Representation of the Mairnonides Research in Books by Psychologists It is appropriate to begin %kith E. M. Hansel's 1980 revision0f his earlier critical book on parapsychology. As part of his attempt to bring the earHer book up to date, he included an entire chapter on experiments on telepathy in dreams. One page was devoted to a description of the basic method used in the Mairrion- ides experiments; one paragraph summarized the im- pressive outcome of 10 of the experiments. The rest of the chapter was devoted mainly toa specific account of the experiment in which psychologist Robert Van de Castle: was the subject (the outcome is summarized in Line G of my Table 1) and to the attempted rep- lication at the University of Wyoming (Belvedere & Foulkes, 197 1), in which Van de Castle was again the subjem. Another page was devoted to another of the Maimon'ides experiments that was also repeated at the University of Wyoming (Foulkes et aL, 1972). Hansel did not mention the replication by Globus et a]. ( 1968), whose authors fell that the results encour- aged further exploration. Hansel Rave more weight to the two negative outcor~_esa~ than to the -smTraf-tli&-Ma:iriidrii-cTc-:s_b;~rc.b,xZuiog thatscpsory ctres3uppos5my permined by the procedures at Mai- mobides, not possible because of greater care taken by the WyominZ experimenters, were responsible for the differenor, in results. He did not provide, of course, thre hill account of proocEres presented in the original. Maimonides reports that might persuade many read- ers that Him- -I's'in-it'e'rip-retation is far fromcompeilling. j;;Z~drd-tm consider why some of the other experi- ments at Maimonides, not obviously distinguished in the care with which they were done from the two that were replicated (e.g., those on lines E, M, and 0 of Table 1) !yielded a ckne-to-chance outcome such as Hansel might have expected sensory cuing to prevent. Han.sel exaggerated the opportunities for sensory cui ng771hat is, f6i'ibi lx=ipi cinti to 6-b-ta-in-by _6r'di nary - sensory ineans some infoi tion about the target for the night. He did this notably by misinterpreting an ambiguous statement in the Maimonides reports, not mentioning that his interpretation was incompatible with other passages; his interpretation was in fact cr- roneous, as shown by Akers (1984, pp. 128-129). Further more, Hansel did not alert the reader to the great care exerted by the researchers to eliminate pos- sible sources of sensory cuing. Most important is the fact that Hansel did not provide any plausible ac- co u n t ---oTh;er-thanjraud-:~-Zf how' 'the cpip'oftutitrc~~ c'x-i-sted would be like-Ty-f6lcid 16-the' s-t-rikin-g findings of't'hc -r-c-s-earch. For example, he seemed to consider important the fact that at Maimonides the agent could leave his or her room during the night to go to the bathroom, whereas in Wyoming the agent had a room with its own bathroom, and the outer door to the room was scaled with tape to prevent the agent from emerging. Hansel did not attempt to say how the agent's visit to the bathroom could have altered the details of the percipient's dreams each night in a manner distinc- tively appropriate to that night's target. The only plausible route of influence on the dream record seems to be deliberate fraud involving the researchers and their subjects. The great number and variety of personnel in these st udies--experi rn enters, agents, percipients, and judges-makes fraud especially un- likely as an explanation of the positive findings; but Hansel did not mention this important fact. _3ppears to me that 0 of Hansel's criticisms J1 of the Maimonides experiments are relevant only on theE-Hl'y-po-'t-be-s'i-s-'-o-'f"fraud .(except for the mistaken crit- icism I have mentioned above). He said that uninten- tional communication was more likely but provided no evidence either that it occurred or that such com- munication-in any form in which it might have oc- curred--could have produced such consistent results as emerged from the Maimonides experiments. I infer that Hansel A-as merely avoiding making explicit his unsupported accusations of fraud. Fraud is an inter- pretation always important to keep in mind, and it is one that could not be entirely excluded even by pre- cautions going beyond those used in the Wyoming studies. But the fact that fraud was as always, theo- retically possible hardly justifies dismissal of a series of carefully conducted studies that offer important suggestions for opening up a new line of inquiry into a topic potentially of great significance. Especially re- grettable is Hansel's description of various supposed defects in the experiments as though they mark the experiments as being carelessly conducted by general scientific criteria, whereas in fact the supposed defrcu are relevant only if one assumes fraud. A reader who is introduced to the Maimonides research by Hansel's chapter is likely to get a totally erroneous impression of the care taken by the experimenters to avoid various possible Sources of error. The one thing they could November 1985 - American Psycbologist 1225 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96. R?03100140001-2 not avoid was obtaining results that Hansel_ considered the Mai pcri ts bemuse seeulcd to - monides ex men a priori impossible, hence evidence of -fraud,o control groups. He wrote that but -a they ifmw:l Hansel was not entirely frank about his reasoning.control grou for which no sender or no target was --An-incidental Paint worth notingls.tt;iLHjn~~used, woulda essential" (p. 163). Later he added, did not himself apply, in his critical. the -One could. ternatively, 'send' ct when the subject was aix- -.. Ii. - not in the dr m state, and compare e demanded of thc-.L~~rchers. 'success' in this - - - ' ' - 65~nclusjons ~~rj7 in earn ffi case wil:th Stu dr state trials" s (p. 163). The 6as~d implici; ~J on T~C ~iSCr~~ Y Lion that the difference or outcome between first Qf ts su -a relevant. use. the Mai- ol7con- _tb.CM- ~ temen, - ggests. monides and the Wyoming experiments was a 't12LE9ups b t errs in alling genuine it essential; in other difference, not attributable to random variation.-gii-W-holp '.Cal cstarch, Alcock He would have cl~ubtleis V "' - r6T"can, did not even raise the question, as he surelyized that "%~ithin-subj&i corif would r have if, in some parallel instance, the Maimonides't b l.c bi. much more-efficiem-and pertinent researchers had claimed or implied statisticalcontrol Zroup. His second stat~rrien*f- signif- SCNLI7311 ------ icance where it was questionable. In fact, suggests -a t of cxpcnment that the difference is probably im- of outcome might well have arisen from randompossible sc in satisfactory form error, it seems to re- V for the percipient's own judgments the differenceSubji to dream whether awake or is asleep quire the significant at the 5% level (2-tailed), but and not to kn w whether he or for the out- she was awake or sidcrs' judgments it does not approach significance.asleep). This ond kind of experiment, moreover, Another 1980 book is The Pswhology of Tran- has spccia~ ncnce only to a comparison between Pe scendence, by Andrew Neher, in which almost 100 i dri dking, not to the question of whether m pages are devoted to "psychic experience." ES7P Neher dif- is Zanii es ed in dreaming. fered from the other authors I refer to in Alcock, in short, did not seem describing to recognize that the Maimonides work as a "series of studies thedesignofth Mai monides expcri of great ments was based interest" (p. 145), but this evaluation seemson controls ex ctly parallel to to be ne- those used by innu- gated by his devoting only three lines to merable psychlo ogists in other it and four research with similar fines to unsuccessful replications. logical structure (and even implied, curiously enough, A third 1980 publication, The Ps)vhology of the ' in his own sec suggestion). He encouraged readers o Pswhic. by David Marks and Richard Kammann, to think that t h Maimonides studies are beyond the provides less of a general review of recent pale of acceptalle experimental parapsy- design, whereas in chology than Hansel's book or even Nchcr's fact they are fi c examples of one long appropriate use of chapter. It is largely devoted to the techniqueswithin-subject ntrol rather than of between -su bi ects mentalists (that is, conjurors specializing control. in psycho- logical rather than physical effects) and The quality of thinking with which can be useful Alcock con- to anyone encouritcring, a mentalist who fronted the Mai onides research pretends to appeared also in a be "Psychic." Most readers are not likely passage that did ot refer to it to be aware by name. Referring to that parapsychological research receives an article publis ed in The Hunwnisi only Limited by Ethel Grod- attention. The jacket blurbs give a very zins Romm, he ote, different view of the book, as do the authors in their introductoryRomm(1977)argu that afundamental problem with both Sentences: the dream telepath research and the remote vieving tests ESP is just around the next corner. When is that the reports s ffer from you get them it what she called "shoe- fi tti ng*' is just around the next corner. Havifig now guage; she cited turred overr one study in which the sender was installed hundred of these eDrneTs, we de6ded to call , it quits and in a room dra d i white fabric and had ice cubes poured k!i down his bac report our findings for public review. (MarksA iver who reported "white" was & Kammann, im- 1980, p. 4) mediately judged t have made a "hit" by an independent panel. Yet, as she bserved, words suith as "miserable", Given this introduction to the nature of "wet", or "icy" wou d have been the book, better him. , . Again, the readers might suppose it would at least mcntio'nobvious need is for control group. any Why are they not used? comer that many parapsychologists have judged(p. 16 3) to be an impressive turning. 1~ut the Maimonides What Romm d nibed as "shoe fitting" dream, (misinter- ' expenments received no mentim-At all."" preting events to h one's expectations) is an important Anu&a-mtd-mc, 6j-jiychologist James Alcock kind of error that i repeatedly made in interpretation (199 1), quite clearly purports to include of everyday occur ences by people a general re- who believe theN view and evaluation of parapsychological are psychic. But th dream telepathy research. research at Mai- Alcock mentioned (p. 6) that Hansel had examinedmonides was well rotected against Lhis kind of error the Maimonides experiments, but the only by the painstaking controls that account Alcock seemed not of them that Alcock offered (on p. 163) was to have noticed. -S incidental S relv Romm must be referring to to a discussion of control groups. By implicationsome other and ve y sloppy dream he research? 1226 34()O14OMn2?sychologisi d For Release 2000108108: CIA-RDF`96-00"~O Approve Approved For Release 2000108108: CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 The details in this paragraph, and even m6f~-ffn Romm's article, point unmistakably, though inaccurately, to the fifth night of the first pre- cognitive series at Maimonides. The actual details of target and response would alone deprive it of much of its value as an example of shoe fitting. As reported by Krippner, Ullman, & Honorton (197 1), the tar-get was a morning experience that included being in a room that was draped with white sheets. The subject's first dream report had included the statement, -i was just sunding in a room, surrounded by white. Every imaginable thing in that room was white" (p. 201). There is more simfiafity here than Romm and Alcock acknowledged in mentioning from this passage only the single word "white." ,More important, however, is the fact that the ex- perimcni they were referring to provided -no oppor- tunity for shoe fitting. The procedures followed in the experiment were completely misrepresented in a way that created the illusion that the possibility existed. There was no panc)1, in the sense of a group of people gathered together and capable of influencing each other. The judges, cpcrating independently, separately judged every one of the 64 possible combinations of target and transcript yielded by the eight nights of the experiment, not just the eight correct pairings, and they had no clues 'to which those eight were. Their responses are hardly likely to have been immediate, as they required reading the entire night's transcript. Because each judge was working alone and was not recording times, there would have been no record if a particular response had been immediate, and no record of what particular element in the transcript led to an immediate response. I looked up in a 1977 issue of The Humanist the article, by Romm that Alcock cited. The half page on shoe-fitting language gave as examples this item from the Maimonides research and also.A;~_M__.rcP)ow_ vic~_6x_p_e-, r*i'm'_,e,n_is_,( P'u- _th`o-ff_.'&'-_T'arg, - 1976y4me- at -SM lnternational.J~p_~,O cases what was said was ~u_r,c_ fiction, based on failure to note what wv.*.done in the experi m6f~'~Wdfiiii -fn6fiters were well aware of the danger of shoe-fitting linguage and that the'.des'ign brtheir experiments in e'sio ensure that it could not oc vorporated procedur cur. Romm's ignorance about the Maimonides re search and her apparent willingness to fabricate false hoods about it should be recognized by anyone who had read any of tk- Maimonides research publica tions. 'Yet AlcDck accepted and r eated the fictions 11~fic_ -_A~ I... Sp . asthou y were Itrue. presentation in'the con- I&I or a-bo6k4fill'air-einitly in the scientific tradition seemsto me more dangerous than Romm's original arficle, for anyone with a scientific orientation should be able to recognize Romm's article as propaganda. Its title, for example, is "When You Give a Closet Occultist a PhD, What Kind of Research Can You Expcct*r' and it repeatedly speaks of "cult phuds:' meaning people with PhDs who are intffcsted in parapsychological problems. Alcock's repetition of Romm's misstatements in a context lacking these clues may well be taken by many a reader as scholarly writing based on correct information and rational thought. Parado2j~l both Alcock's paragraph and eni-i--i-lis' rihe Romm's article arc, excel.1 t cixiamp AL _ s.hoc n errorihat both decry in.oth""crs who arc in I fact IWIT97-cr-ror carefully avoiding it., - The last of the five books that bring, or fail to bring, the Maimonides research to the attention of psychologists and their students is Anomalislic Psy, chology: A Study ofExtraordinary Phenomena ofBe- havior and Experience, a 1982 volume by Leonard Zusnc and Warren H. Jones. This is in many ways an excellent book, and it is also the one of the five that comes closest to including a general review of important recent research in parapsychology. Its brief account of the Maimonides dream experiments, how- ever, misrepresented them in ways that should seri- ously reduce a reader's interest in considering them further. Zusne and Jones's description of the basic pro- cedure made three serious errors. First, it implied that one of the experimenters had a chance to know the identity of the target. ("After the subject falls asleep, aini art reproduction is selected from a large collection randomly, placed in an envelope, and given to the agent" p. 260). In fact, precautions were taken to cn- sure that no one but the agent could know the identity of the target. Second, the authors stated that "three judges. .. . rate their confidence that the dream con- tent matches the target picture" (p. 260), leading the reader to suppose that the judges were informed of -the identity of the target at the time of rating. In fact, a judge was presented with a dream transcript and a pool of potential targets and was asked to.rate the degree of similarity between the transcript and each member of the pool, while being unaware of which member had been the target. Third, there was a sim- ilarly, though more obscurely, misleading description of how ratings were obtained from the dreamer. This misinformation was followed by even more senous misrcpresentat ion of the research and, by im- plication, of the competence of the researchers. Zusne and Jones (1982) wrote that Ullman and Krippner (1978) had found that dreamers weTC not influenced telepathically unless they knew in advance that an attempt would be made to influence them. This led, they wrote, to the subject's being "primed prior to going to slcW' through the experimenter's preparing the receiver through experriences that were related to the content of the picture to be telepathically transmitted during the night. Thus, when the picture was Van Gogh's Corridor of the St. Paul Hospital, which depicts a lonely figure in the Wways of a mental hospital, the receiver (1) November 1985 - American Psychologist 1227 Approved For Release 2000108108: CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 heard Rosza's Spefibound played on a phonograo; (2) heard the monitor laugh hysterically in the town; (3) was add as -Mr. Van Gogh" by the monitor, (4) was shawm paintings done by mental patienM (5) was gK= a pill and a glass of water, and (6) was daubed with a piece of cotton dipped in Ketone. 7be receiver was an English "sensitive" but it is obvious that no psychic sensitivity *as requiQ to figure out the general content or the picture and to produce an &PProPriate rvPoM whether any dreams were actual y we' or not. (pp. 260-26 1) CQnCCV~W_1WLpMWVi" -.-we have already seen it in Alcock's bDDk. Mcock (1983) wrote the review of Zusne and JoD&s book "or Contemporary Ps)vhology the book-review jouma of the American Psycholog- - ical Association, and he i fid not mention this egregious cis r, even though vF71slight acquaintance with the Maimonicles research should suffice to detect it. Discussion The experiments aimoni es cdical at Center If researchers vmre to report on the possibilityin dreams dearly positive results of of ESP meTit care- tbc experiment described here ful attention hologists who, by Zusne and Jones from psyc for whatever and weTe to claim that it provk)edreason, are interestedthe question of some positive ev- in ESP. To firm idence of ESP, what would a readerbelievers in litypf ESP, they conclude? Surely, the impossit pose a chal- i that the researchers were completelylenge to skill experimental flaws incompetent, but in detwa or to the probably not that they were dishonest.understanding urces of error. For dishonesty of other m To thow who to take such a frank and transparentcan conceive ight be possible, form is hardly that F-SP n: they convey credible. suggestions about)f the conditions some : influencing Incompetence of the researchers its appearance e and about techniques is not, however, or abscn D for a proW inference. The simple fact,investigating which anyone it. can easily verify, is that the This attention t likely to be account Zusne and Jones is n given by psy- gave of the experiment is grosslychWogists whose ge about the experiments inaccurate. What knowW Zusne and Jones have done is to comes from the y their fellow describe (for one books b psychologists specific night of the experiment)that purport parapsychological some of the stimuli to review research. provided to the dreamer the next Some of those agc in neafly incredible morning, after his books eng fal- dreams had been recorded and his ut the experiments; night's sleep was J others jffij:j-ti&6,bf the facts _ Oyer. Zusnc and Jones erroneously_SM_W icve it is fair stated that these select them. to say that I "i I stimuli were provided Wore the i6n- C' of ibm night's sleep, to prime books has rr ectly identified any defect the subject to have or faIscly in the Maimonides'ments other than report having the desired ex ones rel- ldnd of dream. The correct sequenceevant only to i of fraud or on of events was the bypo inappro- ems Cs quite clearly stated in the briefpriate statisticalg (easily remedied reference Zusne and reasoni by new n g i Jones cited (Ullman & Krippner, calculations )Hsbod data). I 1978), as well as in from the pu: do not mean the original research report (Krippner,that the MaimonidesTiments are models Honorton, & exp of design Ullman, 1972). and execution. ready -called attention I have W to a I can unciarstand and sympathize design flaw thatsensitive analysis with Zusne and prevents of some of Jones's error. The experiment the experiments;control procedures they cited is one in and the were vi- which the nocturnal dreamer was olated at one kers (1984) pointed seeldng to dream session, as out on A in response to a set of stimuli the basis of mation supplied to be created and pre- the full infor in the orig- sented to him the next morning. inal Teport. these genuine defects As may be seen in (Neither of was Table 1, results from such precognitivementioned in five books I have sessions (all any of the reviewed done with a single subject) were hem, an indicationeir authors' general cspeci;Wy strong. This of tf lack of apparent transcendence of tiTm correct informationt the Maimonides as vvcll as space makes abou expcri- the precognitive findings seem ments.) at least doubly impos- sibic to most of us. Am easy misreading,Readers who doubt,hat the falsification therefore, on is as cx- initially scanning the research trerne as I haveit need only consult report, would be to pictur the SUPPOSe the stimuli to have been sources I have Their doubt might presented par-fly in f to. also be re effed advance (because some parts obviouslyreduced by familiarityth some of James involved a w Bradley's waking subject) and pardy during 1 0 981, 1984). his 1984 arficle sleep. In he reportod This erroneous reading on which similar misrepresentatio,, Zusne and s of fact on a topic, robust- Jones based their account could 'nm of procedures'cal inference, easily have been cor- of on which rccted by a more careful rereading.psychologists thought to have In dealing with %"VoulWd not nearly the other topics, they mLigbt have strength of preoDnceptiothat many arc known realized the improba- to bility that researchers could! Mw about Esp. ch more likely, hame been so grossly in- ]HOMW m tben, falsi- competent and could have diecked fication on so laden 2 topic as the accuracy of emotional] ESP is for their statements before publisWngmony psydiologists!c earlier article, them. Zusne and In Bradley _ - 0 98 1) presentedcrital evidence Jones arc not alone in this tendencyexperi (for college to qt&NEE~ students, in psychologists) Pro- this cawse, that confi- cePtion of parapsychological researchn through n 4 1228 Noymber 198 5 - American PsWhologist Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789R)03100140001-2 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 dcrice in the corremness of one's own erroneous opin- ions is positively correlated with the degee of expertise one believes oneself to have in the field of knowledge within which the erroneous opinion falls. This fincling, may help in understanding why the authors of some of these books did not find it necemry to consider critically their own erroneous statements. A very considerable proportion of psychologists have a potential interest in the question of ESP. In a recent survey (Wagner & Monnet, 1979) of univenity professors in v26ous fields,34% of psychologists were found to consider ESP,rjthe.r-an.-mubbshcAfazjx-,i Ge-l! _amtprapwi r possibility, cxactJy 0;_s sidered it an impo~isNlity, In this survey, psychologists Te-z- -frequent]. a~Fcs;~a a positive opinion than did members of otkr disciplines, a finding that may be attributable to psychologists' better undentanding of sources0f CrTOTin human judgment. There seems to be no equally soundTeawn for the curious fact that psychologists differed overwhelmingly from othm in their tendency to consider ESP an impossibility. Of natural scientists, only 3% checked that opinion; of the 166 professors in other social scicnces~ not a single one did. ,Both of these groups of psychologists have been ill served by the apparently scholarly books that seem to convev information about the dream experiments. The same may be said about some other lines of para- psychological research. Interested readers might well consult the original sources and form their own Judg- ments. REFERENCES Akers. C. (1984). Mdhodotogical criticisms of parapsycWogy In S. Krippner (Ed.), Advances in parapsychological re3ea-h (Vol. 4, pp. 112-164). JcffcTson, NC McFarland. AloDck, J. E. ( 198 1). Parapsychology science or magic? A psycho- logical perspective. New York: Pergamon Press. Alcock, J. E. (1983). Bringing anomalies back into psychology. Contemporary Psychology. 28. 351-352. Ayeroff. F, & Abelson, R. P. (1976). ESP and ESB: Belief in personal sucoms at mental telepathy. Journal of P&jonaliiy and Social Psychology 34. 240- 24 7. Belvedere. E_ & Foulkes, D. (197 1). Telepathy and drearns: A f"urc to repbcate. Perceptual and Motor Skills. 33. 783-789. Blackmort, S. J. (1984). A psychologicaJ theory of the out-of-body experience. Journal oj'Phrapsychology 48, 201-218. Bradcy, J. V. (1981). Overconfidence in ignorant experts. Bulletin of the Ps)chonomic Society, 17. 82-M. Bradley, J. V. (1994). Anti Donrobustness: A ewe study in the so- ciologry of science, Bulletin ofthe Psycho"nic Society. 22. 463- 466. Braud. 1-Y. (1977). LongAistanoe dream aDd presleep telepathy. In J. D. Mon-is, W. G. ", & PL L Morris (Eds.), Research in pwapsycholM, 1976 (pp. 154-155). Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow. Child, 1. L, Kantluurwii, H., & Sweewy, V. M. (I 977~ A simptified experiment in dream telepathy. In J. D. Morris, W. G. RoU, & FL L. Morris (Eds.), Research in parapsycholM, 1976 (pp. 9 1 - 93). Metuchen. NJ: Scarecrow. Crandall, J. E., & Hite, D. D. (1983). Psi-missing &W displavxmcnt: Evidcncc'fm improperly focused psi? Journal of the American Societyfor Psychical Research. 77. 209-228. Foulkes. D., Belvedere, E., Masters, R. E_ L., Houston, J., Krippner. S., Honorton, C., & Ullman, M. (1972). Long-distance "sensory. bombardment- ESP in dreams: A failure to replicate. Perceptual and Motor Skills. 35. 731-7m. Globus, G., Knapp, P., Skinnm J., & Healey, J. (1%8). An appraisal of telepathic communication in dreams. Psychophysio4ogy 4, 365, Hall. C. (1 %7). Experimcnir zur telepathischen Becinflussu ng von Trkumen. (Experiments on telepathic influence on dreams), Zeitschrift fiir Parapsy~e und Grertzgebiete &r Psychologie. 10, 1"7. _hzVogy: A ical re. Hansel, C. E M. (1980). ESP and parapsyc cr* evaluation. Buffalo, NY* Prometheus. Honorton, C., Krippner, S., & Ullman. M. (1972). TetepaWc pcr- ception or art prints under two condi6ons. Proceedings of the 80th Annual Convention of 1he American Psychological A3.50ci- ation. 7.319-320. Hyman, R_ (1985). Tbc ganzfcld psi experiment: A critical appraisal, Journal of Parapsychology, 49. 3-49. Irwin, H. J. (1979). Psi and the mind: An information processing approach. Mctuchm NJ: Scarecrow Jahn, R. G. (1982). The persistent paradox of psychic phenomena: An engineering perspective. Proceedings of the Institute of Elec- trical and Electronics Engineers. 70. 136-170. Kripprier, S., Honorton, E., & Ullman. M. (1972). A second pre- cognitive dream study with Malcolm Besscnt. Journal of the A merican Sociefyfor Psychical Research, 66. 269-279. Krippnci~ S., Honortm, C. & Ullman, M. (1973). An experiment in dream telepathy with -Tbe Grateful Dead." Journal of the American Society ofPsychosomatic Dentistry and Medicine. 20, 9-17~ Krippner, S.. Honorton, C., Ullman, M.. Masters, R., & Houston, J. (197 1). A long-distance "sensory-bombardment" study of ESP in d' JournaloffheAmencan Socieryfor Psychwzd Research. 63 468-475. Ki ' ppncr~ S., & UUman, M. (1970). Telepathy and dreams: A con- trolled experiment with ckctroencephalogram-clemo-ocukVam monitoring. Journal of Afervous and Menial Disease. 151. 394- 403. Krippner, S., UUman, M., & Honorton. C. (4 97 1). A precognitive dream study with a single sibject. Journal oflheAmerican Sbaery for Psychical Research, 65. 192-203. Lo%Ty, R. (198 1). Apparent -PK effect an com puter-pmeratcd ran. dom digit series. Journal of the American Society, for Psychical Research, 73. 209-220. Marks, D., & Kammann, R. (1980). The psychology ofthe psychic. BuffaJo, NY Prometheus, Mosteller, F., & Bush, R. K (1954). Selected quantitative techniques. In G. Lindzey (Ed.), Handbook ofsocial psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 289-334). Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley. Neher, A. (1980). The Psychology of transcendence. Englewood ClifEs, NJ: Prczitice-Hall. PuLhoff, H. E.. & Tam R. (1976). A pcrccptual channel for infor- mation transfer oyer kilometer disLancirs: Historical pa-spee6ve and recent research. Proceedings of the lrzsfiiule of Electrical and Edectronic Engineers. 64. 329-354. Radin. D. 1. (1982). Experimentid anempts to inDuence pseudo- random number sequcwes. Journal of the American Societyfor PrMical Research, 76. 359-374. Rechtschaffen, A. (1970). Skep awl dream states: An experimental design. In R. C&van= (Ed.). Psifavorable states ofconsciousness (pp. 87-120). ?*w York- Parapsychology Foundation. R--. E. G. (1977). When You give a closet occuWst a Ph.D., what land of nmmrch can you expect? The Humanist. 37(3), 12-15. Roscnthal, R. (1994). Akra-analytic Procedures for social research, Bcvcrfy Hill&, CA: Sage. StmuclL 1. (1970). Dreams anid Psi i In R. Ca na a the latKwa orv van November 1985 - American Psychologist 1229 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 Approved For Release 2000/08YO8 CIA-RDP96-00789R ~03100140001-2 (M-~ PsifavoraNe axes ofcmuiouvwnkoriag techniquet.Journal of AiruWsvchiatry (pp. 46-54~ ?*. Nb&. Internation4l 2. Parapsychology Foundation, 42D-437. I Ullman, M - (1 %9). Tekpathy and UUMAD, M., KriPPDMmn, A. (1973). d"amL ExperimenW Akdidne S., & N%ug Dream selepathy. d SurgrrY. 27. 19-38. Ne- York: Macmillan. * UU-n. M., & Krippoer, S. (1%9~ %i= de C"(1c. R- udy of GESP A laboratory approsch to tbC L. (197 1). Mx in a group i t wWng Docturnal dimen6on Of Pamonnal by means or drmm Fb,,gpr)chojog)-. experience: Rcpw of, on. journal o, 35. 312. firmatory study using Lhe REM V4%vxx, M. W, & ). Attitudes monnoring tadulkw- BwkswAl monnet, M. (19 oroouqr praczars 9 Psxhialry. 1. 259-270. toward extra-wasoryZefefic Scholar, percepti no. 5, 7-16. LMm1n. M., & Krippner, & (1978). Wolman, B. B. (Ed.).of parapsychology. ExperimeaW dream studieL (1977). New In M. Ebon (Ed.~ 7he Signef hamdbook o NO& Van Nostrand f,paraps)chology (pp. Reinhold. 409-422). ?kw Vork New America Z=OCL,&JOnCk-W-H.(l982).nomaisticPsycho0ogy.-Astudy Ubrary. Ullman. M., KriPPDM S, & Rldstrin,ofewraordinary S. (1966). ExpcrimcnWly phenowna ior and eqerience. Momena Hillsdak- iDduccd telepathic dreams: Two . Nj: Elibaum. studies using EECREM nuly'o. 1230 Navemba 1985 ~mcTican Psychologisi 03100140001-2 Approved For Release -2,1000/0/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789 N i A0proved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 Perceptual dad Motor Skills, 1981, 52, 727-732. ~ Perceptual and Motor Skills 1981 LUCID DREAMING VERIFIED BY VOLITIONAL COMMUNICATION DURING REM SLEEPI STEPHEN P. LA BERGE, LYNN E. NAGEL, WILLIAM C. DEMENT, AND VINCENT P. ZARCONE, JR. Stantord University Sammary.-The occurrence of lucid dreaming (dreaming while being con. scious that one is dreaming) his been verified for 5 selected subjects who signaled that they knew they were drearniag while continuing to dream during unequivocal REM sleep. The signals consisted of particular dream actions having observable concomitants and were performed in accordance with pre. sleep agreement. The ability of proficient lucid dreamers to signal in this matter makes possible a new approach to dream research --- such subjects, while lucid, could carry out diverse dream experiments marking the exact time of particular dream events, allowing derivation of predse psychophysiological correlations and methodical testing of hypotheses. That we sometimes dream while knowina that we are dreaming was first noted by Aristotle. According to accounts of conscious or "lucid" dreaming, as this phenomenon is commonly termed, the dreamer can possess a conscious- ness fully comparable in coherence, clarity, and cognitive complexity to that of the waking state, while continuing to dream vividly (Van Eeden, 1913; Brown, 1936; Green, 1968; Tart, 1979; LaBerge, 1980b). As a result of theoretical assumptions about the nature of dreaming, contemporary dream re- searchers have questioned whether these experiences take place during sleep or during brief periods of hallucinatory wakefulness. The purpose of the present study was to give an empirical answer to this quest-ton by determining the physiological conditions in which lucid dreaming occurs. Our experimental approach was suggested by previous investigations (An- trobus, et al., 1965; Salamy, 1970; Brown & Cartwright, 1978), showing that sleeping subjects are sometimes able to produce behavioral responses highly correlated with dreaming. Since these subjects have not, according to Cart- wright (1978), been conscious of making the responses, these earlier studies do not provide evidence for voluntary action (and thus, reflective conscious- ncss) during sleep. However, we reasoned that what could be done uncon- sciously could also be done consciously. The experience of one of us (S.P.L.) indicated that, if subjects became aware they were dreaming, they could also remember to perform previously 'The writing of this manuscript was supported, in pan, by the Holmes Center for Re- search in Holistic Healing. We are grateful to Drs. J. van den Hoed and R. Coleman for helpful comments and Mr. R. Baldwin, Ms. S. Bornstein, and Mr. S. Coburn for expert technical assistance. Request reprints frorn Stephen P. LaBerge, Ph.D., Sleep Research Center, Stanford University, School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305. Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789RP03100140001-2 728 S. P. LA BERGE, ET AL. intended dream actions. Because dreamed gaze tioas have and limb aC some- times shown very good correlations with polygraphicallyorded eye rec move- mears and muscle activation (Rechtschaffen, ed plausible 1973), it seem that lucid dreamers could signal that they knew theying by means were drearr of intentional dream actions having observable relates. physiological METHOD AND RESUL17S Five subrjects, trained in the method of lucid uction (MILD) dream ind described by LaBerge (1980c), were selected of their claimed on the basis ability to have lucid dreams on demand, and 0 nonconsecutive studied for 2 to , nights (see Table 1). Standard polysomnograms haffen & Kales, (Rechts 1968), i.e., electroencephalogram (EEG), electro-oculogramEOG), and chin electromyogram (EMG), were recorded, as well ight wrist as left and r EMG (for signaling). The subjects attempted to followmined procedure a predete of signaling whenever they became aware that ming. A variety they were dre2 of signals were specified, generally consistingion of dreamed of a combing t eye movements and a pattern of left and right aches. The dream-fist cle sub- jects derrionstrated the signals during pre-recordingbut were asked calibratiot s nor to practice further while awake. In the course of the study, 35 lucid dreams d subsequent were reporte to spontaneous awakening from various stages of rapid-eye-move- sleep as follows: ment (REM) sleep in 32 cases, non-REM (NREM) twice, and Stage 1 dur- ing the transition from NREM Stage 2 to REM once. The subjects reported signaling during 30 of dreams. After these lucid each recording, the reports mentioning signals along with were submitted the respective polysomnogram to a judge uninformed s of the reports. of the time TABLE I SUMMARY OF LUciI) DREAM SIGNALING EXPERIMEN-IS Subject Nights Lucid dreams reported E ucid dream signals (age, sex) recorded (sleep stage) v erified */reported S.L. (32 yr., M) 20 17 (REM) 14/15 R.K. (28 yr., M) 4 5 (REM) 3/5 L.L. (34 yr., F) 2 1 (REM) 0/0 2 (NREM - 1) 0+/) B.K. (27 yr., F) 6 6 (REM) 5/6 1 (NREM-2/REM)++ 0/0 S.P. (26 yr., M) 2 2 (REM) 2/2 *Blindly matched for correspondence between gnals. reported and observed l +0n awakening from NREM Stage I sleep (2 min. ed from REM), after having aw the subject reported performing the agreed-uponand lengthy signal duzing a vivi lucid id dream. However, neither her EOG nor wrist EMG a of the reported showed any signals, as might be expecred from the normal between dream lack of correspond gaze and eye movements during descending Stage fen, 1973). I sleep (Rerchtsch ++The subject awoke, in this case, during the Stage 2 to tmwition from REM. Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 Approved For Release 2000108108: CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 LUCID DREAMING 729 The judge was asked to determine whether one (or none) of the polysom. nographic epochs corresponded with the reported lucid dream signal. In 24 cases, the judge was able to select the appropriate 30-sec. epochs (out of about 1000 per polysomnogram) on the basis of correspondence between re- ported and observed signals (Table 1). The probability that the selections were correct by chance alone is astronomically small. All signals associated with lucid dream reports occurred during epochs of unambiguous REM sleep scored according to the standard criteria (Rechtscbaffen & Kales, 1968). The lucid dream signals were followed by an average of 1 min. (range: 5 to 450 sec.) of uninterrupted REM sleep. Inspection of the polysomnographic epochs preceding the lucid dream signal reports suggested the failures with blind matching (the "false nega- tives") were due to high baseline EOG and wrist EMG activity, resulting in an unfavorable signal-to-noise ratio. However, no clear iastances of signals were observed except where reported, i.e., there were no "false positives." On the other hand, in many cases, the reported signals were unequivocal (see Figs. I and 2). The most reliable signal was a series of extreme horizontal'eye movements (left, right, left, right.) CEO U COO fq\~ L L L L L L EM L iL ik A left WrWt Ufflot FIG. 1. Polygraph record of a subject signaling that he knows he is dreaming. The subject awoke approximately 20 sec. after this excerpt and reported recognizing that he was dreaming and performing the agreed upon signal in the dream, i.e., he directed his dream gaze upwards momentarily (U) and then executed ~ sequence of dreamed left (L) and right (R) fist clenches, Morse code for S.I., the subject's initials. Note that unlike the predominantly horizontal eye movements (above right), the extreme upward eye es characteristic artifact in the EEG channel. All three of the scoring criteria 6r REM sleep are met: low amplitude chin EMG, episodic REMs, and low-voltage, mixed-frequency EEG (Rechtschaifen & Kales, 1968). Ile EEG shows occasional 10-Hz (alpha) activity as is normal during REM sleep (Rechtschaffen, 1973); integration of the alpha band-pass filtered EEG showed the amount of alpha activity during the lucid dream did not significantly differ from that during the preceding oon- lucid portion of the RFIM period. (Calibrations: 50AV; 5 sm.) Approved For Release 2000108108 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789RP03100140001-2 730 S. P. LA BERGE, ET AL. The most complicated signal (shown in Fig. 1) consimed of a single up- ward dream-eye movement foUowed by a series of left (L) and right (R) drearn-fist clenches in the order "LLL LRU." 11is sequence is equivalent to the subject's initials in Morse code (LLL = . = S; I RLL = . .. . . = L) . The complexity of this signal argues against the possil: ility that the EMG discharges might be spontaneous. That all cases of lucid dream signaling occurred duri epochs scored as REM sleep specifies, to a certain extent, the physiology of lucid dreaming as .. a relatively low voltage, mixed frequency EEG in conjunction with episodic REMs and low amplitude electromyograrn (EMG)" (Rectitscbaffen & Kales, 1968). This definition allows variation in the three par etcrs, the details of which will be reported elsewhere. In brief, the variatio in the EEG pat terns of the lucid dream polysomnograrns were typical f REM sleep, i.e., Ff sporadic "saw-tooth" waves as well as alpha and theta rhytim, and not wake- fulness. The occasional, but normal, appearance of alphg rhythm (a brain wave usuaUy associated with wakefulness), in the EEG dming REM periods raises the possibility that lucid dreaming could occur during momentary par- tial arousals or "micro-awakenings" (Schwartz & Lefebvre, 1973). However, alpha rhythm need not be present during lucid dream signaling, as is shown by Fig. 2. Furthermore, some of the lucid dreams were several minutes long, ruling out any explanation based on the notion of brief intrusions of wakeful- ness. (A) AWAKE EEG, (B) LUCID DREAM 91EG EMQ W. 44 FIG. 2. CompLrison of EEG (C3/A2) during lucid dream sifinaling (B) and im- mediately after awakening (A). Ile continuous waking alpha (10 Hz) activity for this subject is clearly distinct from the mixed frequency patterns during REM sleep. Although other EEG patterns are compatible with wakefulness, the tracing illustrated is the pattern normally exhibited when subjects awaken from sleep. The 2- to 4-Hz EEG activity prominent in the lucid dream simple (B) is highly characteristic of REM sleep. (Calibratioas: 50 AV; I sec.) DiscUSSION How do we know that the subjects were "reaLly asl municated the signals? If we aflow perception of the when they com- rnal world as a Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789RP03100140001-2 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 LUCID DREAMING 731 criterion of being awake, we can conclude the subjects were indeed asleep: Although they knew they were in the laboratory, this knowledge was a mat. ter of memory, not perception; upon awakening, they reported having been totally in the dream world and not in sensory contact with the external world. Neither were the subjects merely not attending to the environment, e.g., as when absorbed in reading of daydreaming; according to their reports, they were specifically aware of the abjence of sensory input from the external world. If subjects were to claim to have been awake while showing physiological signs of sleep, or vice versa, we might doubt their subjective reports. However, in (he present case, the subjective accounts and physiological measures are in clear agreement, and it would be extremely unparsimonious to suppose that subjects who believed themselves to be asleep while showing physiological indications of sleep were actually awake. The two principal conclusions of this study are that lucid dreaming can occur during REM sleep and that it is possible for lucid dreamers to signal intentionally to the environment while continuing to dream. These findings have both theoretical and practical consequences. The first result shows that under certain circumstances, dream cognition during REM sleep can be much more reflective and rational than has been commonly assumed. Evidence in- dicating that lucid dreaming is a learnable skill (LaBerge, 1979, 1980a, 1980b, 1980c), taken with the second result, suggests the feasibility of a new ap- proach to dream research: lucidly dreaming subjects could carry out diverse experiments marking the exact time of occurrence of particular dream events, which would allow the derivation of precise psychophysiological correlations aad methodical testing of hypotheses. REFERENCES ANTRoBus, J. S., ANIROBUS, J. S., & FISHER, C. Discrimination of dreaming and non- dreaming sleep. Archives ol General Piychiary, 1965, 12, 395A01. BROWN, A. E. Dreams in which the dreamer knows he is asleep. Journal ot Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1936, 31, 59-66. BROWN, J. N., & CARTWRIGHT, R. Locating NREM dreaming through instrumental responses. Piychophyfiology, 1978, 15, 35-39., CARIWRIGHT, R. [Response to review of Brown and Cartwright (1978).] Sleep Reviews, 1978, 166, 30. GREEN, C Lacid dreams. London: Hamilton, 1968. LABERGE, S. Lucid dreaming: some personal observations. Sleep Research, 1979, 8, 153. LABERGE, S. P. Induction of lucid dreams. Sleep Research, 1980, 9, 138. (a) LABERGE, S. P. Lucid dreaming: an exploratory study of consciousness during sleep. Ph.D. dissertation, Stanford Univer., 1980. (University Microfilms International, 80-24, 691) (b) LABERGE, S. P. Lucid dreaming as a learnable skill: a case study. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1980, 51, 1039-1042. (c) RECHTSCHAFFEN. A. 'ne psychophysiology of mental activity during sleep. in F. J. Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789R~03100140001-2 732 S. P. LA BERGE, ET AL. McGuigan & R. A. Schoonover (Eds.), The PsYckoPbriologyof thinking. New York: Academic Press, 1973. PP. 153-200. RECHTSCRAFFBN, A., & KALES, A. (Eds.) A manual of stand ized terminology, techniques and scoring system for sleep stages of hmma j 4, bifer W h- D.C: United States Government Printing Office, 1968. ~*]N Insrit'u't'eo'f' Health Publication No. 204) SALAMY, J. Instrumental responding to internal cues associated with REM sleep. Psy. chooomic Science, 1970, 18, 342-343. ScHwARrz, B. A., & LEFEBVRE, A. Contacts veille/P.M.O. 11: Les P.M.O. Mofcelees. Revue d'Eleciroencephalographie et do Nearopbysiologie Clinilpoo, 1973, 3, 165. 176. TART, C S. From spontaneous event to lucidity: a review of attempts t control nocturnal dreaming. In B. B. Walman (Ed.), Handbook of dreams. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1979. Pp. 226-268. VANEEDEN, F. A. A study of drriuns. Proceedings of $be Society for kal Research, Yycb 1913, 26, 431-461. [Reprinted in C T. Tan (Ed.), Altered Of co"Iciomi- ates ness. New York: Wiley, 1969. Pp. 145-158] ; Accepted April 7, 1981. Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789R~03100140001-2 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDPqJ3,;, QTQP,, ,q JIP0440001-2 25111211 ..d S I-Sh. Voh.- 7. N..,be,, 2 nd 1'151~ 251112 "1 n8112MI "1 0211 01 7 ISBN 0.9k)1'45 02 7 COG NITION ANT) DREL;FAM 'Ruir.,SEARCH Lucid Dreaming: Physiological Correlates of Consciousness during REM Sleep Stephen LaBerge Stanford University and The Saybrook Institute Lynne Levitan and William C. Demerit Stanford University Edited by Robert E. Haskell, Ph*D* Tile' Journalof Mind and Behavior Reports of lucid dreaming (dreaming while being conscious that one is dreaming) were verified for 13 selected subjects who signaled by means of voluntary eye-movements that they knew they were dreaming while continuing to dream during unequivocal REM sleep. Physiological analysis of the resulting 76 signal-verified lucid dreams (SVLDs) revealed that elevated levels of automatic nervous system activity reliably occured both during and 30 seconds preceding the onset of SVLDs, implicating physiological activation as a necessary condition for reflective consciousness during REM dreaming. The ability of proficient lucid dreamers to deliberately perform dream actions in accordance with pre- sleep agreement makes possible the methodical and precise determination of psycho- physiological correspondence during REM dreaming. It is not the usual case for dreamers to know that they are dreaming while they are dreaming. Nevertheless, significant exceptions sometimes occur when dreamers realize while dreaming that they are dreaming. Although lucid dreaming, as this phenomenon is called, has been known since the time of Aristotle, it has only recently become the subject of scientific inquiry (LaBerge, 1985a). Studies in our laboratory and elsewhere have demonstrated that lucid dreams occur almost exclusively during REM sleep (Dane, 1983; Fenwick, Schatzman, Worsley, Adams, Stone, and Baker, 1984; Hearne, 1978; LaBerge, Nagel, Demerit, and Zarcone, 1981; Tyson, Ogilvie, and Hunt, 1984). However, until now little light has been shed on the detailed physiology of dream lucidity. The purpose of the present study was to investigate physiological correlates of REM lucid dreams. The volunteer subjects were seven males and six females (age ranging from SPECIAL ISSUE Volurne 7, Nunitx-m 2 and 3 Sp,n*,, , IS11 Ap ro,A&Tor N19a 9-'2000/08/08 The authors would like to thank the Institute of Human Development for financial support. Requests for reprints should be sent to Stephen LaBerge, Ph.D., Sleep Research Center,Stan- ford University, Stanford, California 94305. CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 252 11221 LaBERGE/LEVITAN/DEME~ LUCID DREAMING 253 [1231 rov'e ~or Release 2000/08/08 CIA 6,k~6~~,&~ledoOl A RDP96 2 0078 pp - - - 21-51; mean= 28), trained in the MILD technique of (HR) and respiration lucid dream induction rate (RR) were also determined for SVLDs recorded (see LaBerge, 1980). Subjects were selected on the with the relevant basis of their claimed abil- measures. ity to have lucid dreams on demand and were studied For the first in a sleep laboratory lucid epoch (during signals), STATE was unequivocal REM for 2-25 non-consecutive nights. Standard polysomnogramsin 70 cases (Rechtschaffen (92%). The remaining six SVLDs were less than 30" long and hence and Kales, 1968) (i.e., electroencephalogram [EEG], technically electro-oculogram [EOGI, unscorable by the orthodox (Rechtshaffen and Kales, 1968) criteria. and chin electromyograrn [EMGI) were recorded, as For these cases, well as, in certain cases, the entire SVLD was treated as a single epoch and scored a variety of additional physiological measures. as if they were of standard length; with this modification, all qualified as REM. Before bedtime on recording nights subjects were instructedThe lucid dream to immediately signals were followed by an average of 115 seconds (range: signal whenever they realized they were dreaming. 5 to 490 seconds) A variety of signals were of uninterrupted REM sleep. specified, typically two pairs of extreme horizontal Anecodotal reports eye-movements (left, right, indicate that lucid dreams are sometimes initiated from left, right) in sorne cnses,-subjerts-mriygd-a-dditionaIthe waking state, instructions to carry but more frequently "fa the dmam state "Gr- n, 1968; out specific activities in the dream state once they LaBerge, 1985a). became lucid. Since lucid dreams initiated in these two ways would be ex- In the course of the study, 88 lucid dreams were reportedPected to differ subsequent to physiologically, SVLDs were dichotomously classified as either spontaneous awakenings from the following stages of "Wake-initiated" sleep, scored according (WILD) or "Dream-initiated" (DILD), depending on whether to the standard criteria (Rechtschaffen and Kales, or not the reports 1968): REM in 83 cases mentioned a transient awakening (i.e., conscious percep- (94.3%), NREM Stage-I in four cases (4.5%), and at tion of the the transition between external environment). Fifty-five (72%) of the SVLDs were classified NREM Stage-2 and REM in one case (1.1%). The subjectsas DILDs and reported signaling the remaining 21 (28%) as WILDs. For all 13 subjects, DILDs in 80 cases (90.9%), all following REM awakenings were more common (96.4% of the REM reports). than WILDs (binomial test, p<.0001). Compared to After each recording, reported lucid dream signals DILDs, WILDs were verified by means were more frequently immediately preceded by physiological of a blind judging procedure previously detailed elsewhereindications (LaBerge et al., of arousal (XI=38.3, ldf, P<0000, establishing the construct valid- 1981). Briefly, the reports mentioning lucidity signalsity of the classification were submitted along dimension. with the respective polysomnograms to a judge who Figure I illustrates attempted to determine a typical DILD. Four channels of physiological data (cen- which 30' epoch of the physiological records correspondedtral EEG IC3-A,J, to a given reported left and Tight eye-movements [LOC and ROCI, and chin signal. The judge (blind to the times the reports muscle tone were made) successfully [EMGJ) from the last 8 minutes of a 30 minute REM period matched 76 (95%) of the reported signals to an epoch are shown. Upon from the correct REM awakening the subject reported having made five eye move- period. The probability that such a large number of ment (EM) signals matches could have been (labeled 1-5). The first signal 0, two pairs of left-right EMs) made by chance is infinitesmally small. marked the onset of lucidity. During the following 90 seconds the subject The 13 subjects contributed varying numbers of signal-validated"flew about" lucid exploring his dream world until he believed he had awakened, dreams (SVLDs) ranging from 1-25, each with the medianat which point number of SVLDs he made the signal for awakening (2, four pairs of left-right per subject being four. Although four subjects furnishedEMs). After a single SVLD each another 90 seconds the subject realized he was still dreaming while another two subjects together supplied 43 (56% and signaled of the total), the number (3) with three pairs of tMs. Realizing that this was too many, of SVLDs contributed by the two sexes did not significantlyhe correctly differ. Potential signaled with two pairs (4). Finally, upon awakening two minutes problems arising from the unequal N of observations later he signaled per subject were averted appropriately (5, four pairs of EMs). by statistically analysing summary scores for all Figure 2 illustrates physiological variables (i.e., six channels of physiology (left and right temporal EEG the mean of each subject's mean values, yielding a [T3 and T41, maximum N = 13). left and right eye-movements [LOC and ROCI, chin muscle The polysomnograms corresponding to each of the SVLDstone JEMGJ, were sleep- and electrocardiogram JECGJ) for a typical WILD. The subject staged. Additionally, every SVLD REM period was dividedawoke at I and into 30 second after 40 seconds returned to REM sleep at 2, and realized epochs aligned with the lucidity onset signal; up he was dreaming to 60 epochs of data from 15 seconds later at 3. Next he carried out the agreed-upon the preceding (non-lucid) REM period and 15 epochs dream actions, from the lucid dream singing between signals 3 and 4, and counting between signals were collected. For each epoch, sleep stage (STATE) 4 and 5. This was scored and rapid allowed comparison of left and right hemisphere activation dur- eye movements (EM) were counted; if scalp skin-potentialing the two responses were tasks (LaBerge and Dement, 1982a). observable as artifacts in the EEG, these were also Physiological counted (SP). Heart rate comparison of lucid versus non-lucid epochs revealed that lucid Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 254 [1241 LaBERGEARqXy"JWN~e I ease 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789RO03100140OQl~2-(.-ii) DREAMING Table 1 255 [1251 Comparisons of Physiological Variables for Lucid and Non-lucid Epochs Variables are averaged rwer REM Periods and subjects. L = mean value for lucid epochs; N = mean value for non-lucid epochs; LND=,mean value of difference score for lucid minus non-lucid epochs. REM density (EM) EML > EMN EMLND > 0 Respiration Rate (RR) RRL > RRN RRLND > 0 Heart Rate (HR) HRL > HRN HRLND > 0 [012)=4-36; p<.00011 [f(12)=3.93; P<0021 1t(7)=4.07; [K-0041 107)=4.49; p<.0041 108)=2-54; p<.0251 110=2.91; PP<.Olj Skin Potential (SP) SPL > SPN [r(8)=3.00; p<.011 SPLND > [t(8) = 2.4 1; p<.0 I I epochs of SVLD REM periods are characterized by significantly higher levels of physiological activation than are epochs of preceding non-lucid REM from T3 T4 Loc-'~' Rocll EM .2 ....... IN 3 q3 a Figure 2: A typical lucid dream initiated from a transient awakening during REM (WILD). (Calibrations are W PV and 5 A onds oved For Release 2000/08/08 00 the same REM period (see Table 1). In order to follow the temporal variations of physiology correlated with the development and initiation of lucidity, for each SVLD REM period the physiological variables were converted to Z-scores and averaged across dreams and subjects. Figure 3 is a histogram of the resultant mean Z-scores for the ten minutes before and the five minutes after the initiation of lucidity. Note the highly significant increases in physiological activation during the 30 seconds before and after lucidity onset. Physiological data (EM, RR, HR, and SP) were scored for 61 control non-lucid REM periods (NLREMPs), derived from the same 13 subjects, in order to allow comparison with SVLDs (LDREMPs). Mean values for EM and SP were signi6- cantly higher for LDREMPs than NLREMP controls (RR and HR did not differ). If lucid dream probability (LDPROB) were constant across time during REM periods, lucid dreams should occur most frequently in the first few minutes of REM. On this hypothesis, LDPROB should be a monotonically decreas ing function of time into REM, following the survivor function of mean REM period lengths (REMLEN). Although REMLEN proved to be an excellent predictor of LDPROB (r= .97, p<005), our data showed that LDPROB does not reach its maximum before about five to seven minutes into REM. The discrepancy between theory and observation is particularly acute for XVILDs: only one out of 21 WILDs occurred during the first four minutes of REM, suggesting that there must be another factor contributing to the distribution CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 C:rA2 LOC ROC EMG Figure 1: A typical dream-initated lucid dream (DILD). (Calibrations are 50pV and 5 seconds. 1 25611261 LaBERGE/LEVITAN/DEMENT PHYSIOLOGY OF LUCID DREAMING 257 11271 Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 10. of lucid dreams within REM periods. 08-1 REM UENSITY Having found that lucid dreams reliably occur during activated REM, we 04 predicted that LDPROB would share significant variance with measures of 0.4 - CNS activation. Since it has been reported that eye-movement density starts 0.2- at a low level at the beginning of REM periods and increases until it reaches a peak after approximately five to seven minutes (Aserinsky, 1971), we hypothesized that LDPROB should follow a parallel development. Accor -0.2- dingly, we found that mean eye-movement density (EM) correlated positive -0.4 . .. .... 1y and significantly with LDPROB (Y=.66, p<.01). In a regression of LDPROB -50 -CO -3.0 -20 -1,0 0.0 ID 2.0 i0 410 50 on EM and REMLEN, both variables entered significantly, giving an adjusted 1.0 05 0.0. 2.0. 1.5-. 1.0.. 0.5 0-0. .0-5 1.4 - - 1.2- HEART RRTE 1o- 0.8- 04 - 0.4- 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 .0.6 -5.0 -4-0 -3.0 -2-0 -1 o o.o 1.0 270 3~O 4.0 5,0 multiple R=.98 (p<.005). I larid drear-ns -'. 6- -iAe-ly reported tG-6karw-ter-istically occur- "21- most exclusively" towards the end of the night (Garfield, 1975; Green, 1968; LaBerge, 1985a). Cohen (1979) has argued that the left hemisphere shows a gradual increase in dominance across the night. Since left-hemisphere abstract symbolic functions are, ncloubtedly crucial for lucid dreaming, Cohen's GILD hypothesis led us to predict (LaBerge, 1985b) that the probability of dream lucidity should increase with time of night. -0.5 . -5.0 -4.0 -3 0 40 '-1*0 00 10 2'0 i0 410 !So For each subject a median split for total REM time was determined; I I of RESPIRATION RATE SKIN POTENTIAL 0 A F==R the subjects had more lucid dreams in the later half of REM than in the earlier half (binomial test; p<.01). For the combined sample, relative lucidity probability was calculated for REM periods 1-6 of the night by dividing the total number of lucid dreams observed in a given REM period by the cor- responding total time in stage REM for the same REM period. A regression analysis clearly demonstrated that relative lucidity probability was a linear function of ordinal REM period number (r=.98, p<.0001). No measure of ac- tivation (EM, RR, HR, SP) even approached significance when entered into the regression equation. These results strongly support the conclusion that lucid dreams are more likely to occur in later REM periods than in earlier ones-provided, of course, that sleep is continued long enough. Our demonstration that lucid dreams are reliably associated with elevated levels of physiological activation, may raise a question: why is lucid dream- ing the exception rather than the rule? After all, physiological activation ade- quate for lucidity probably occurs every night during most REM periods; why then do we not become lucid more frequently? It appears plausible that we usually lack an appropriate pre-sleep, and thus, REM cognitive set (i.e., the intention to become conscious of our dreaming). Although the importance of physiological factors in the genesis of dream lucidity is clear, it seems equally clear that psychological factors are no less important. -5.0 -4.0 -3.0 -2.0 -1.0 0~0 1 o 2-0 3.0 4.0 5~0 Figure 3: Histograms of mean Z-scores for EM, RR, HR. and SP. Bins are 30 seconds in length It is also worth noting that the ability of lucid dreamers to deliberately per- with t=0 representing the signaled onset of lucidity. Ns vary with variable and bin, form dream actions in accordance with pre-sleep agreement makes possible but all values are averaged across lucid dreams and subjects. (*p<,05) an experimental paradigm allowing the methodical and precise cletermina- Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 Approved For Release 2000/08108: CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 ConsciousMind The Psychophysiology of Lucid Dreaming Sleeping Brain Perspectives on Lucid Dreaming STEPHEN LABERGE Edited by Jayne Gackenbach University of Northern Iowa Cedar Falls, Iowa and Stephen LaBerge Stanford University Stanford, California LUCID DREAMING PHYSIOLOGICALLY VERIFIED Although we are usually unaware of the fact that we are dreaming while we are dreaming, at times a remarkable exception occurs, and our consciousness be- comes lucid enough for us to realize that we are dreaming. Lucid dreamers report being able to freely remember the circumstances of waking life, to think clearly, and to act deliberately upon reflection, all the while experiencing a dream world that seems vividly real (Green, 1968; LaBerge, 1985a). This is all in contrast to the usual characterization of dreams as typically lacking any reflective awareness or true volition (Rechtschaffen, 1978). Indeed, the concept of conscious steep can seem so self-contradictory and paradoxicaf to certain ways of thinking that some theoreticians have considered lucid dreams impossible and even absurd. Probably the most extreme example of this point of view is provided by Malcolm (1959), who argued that if being asleep means experiencing nothing whatsoever, "dreams" are not experiences during sleep at all but only the reports we tell after awakening. This concept of steep led Malcolm to conclude that the idea that someone might reason while asleep is "meaningless." From here, the philosopher reasoned that If -I am dreaming" could express a judgment it would imply the judgment 'I am asteep,' and therefore ft absurdity of the latter proves the absurdity of the fonner. " Thus "the supposed judgement that one is dreaming" is "unintelligible" and "an inherently absurd form of words (Malcolm, 1959, pp. 48-50) The point of this example is to show the skeptical light in which accounts of lucid dreaming were viewed before physiological proof of the reality of the STEPHEN LABERGE - Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305. Plenum Press 9 New York and London Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789R003100140001-2 136 STEPHEN LABERGE Anproved For Release 2000/08/08 phenomenon made philosophicaraiFgnments moot. As f5r the occasional reports in which dreamers claimed to have been fully conscious that they were dreaming while they were dreaming, the orthodox view in sleep and dream research as- sumed (until very recently) that anecdotal accounts of lucid dreams must be somehow spurious. Nevertheless, People still reported dreaming the impossible dream, so the question was raised: "Under what Presumably abnormal Physiological conditions do reports of 'lucid' dreams occur?" In the absence of empirical ence bearing oil the question, speculation largely favored two answers: either wakefulness or NREM sleep. Most sleep researchers were apparently inclined to accept Hartmann's "impression" that lucid dreams were "not typical parts of dreaming thought, but rather brief arousals" (Hartmann, 1975, p. 74; cf. Berger, 1977). mon during REM sleep and proposed these "microawakenings" as the physiolog- ical basis for lucid dream reports. Although no one had put forward any evidence for this mechanism, it seems to have been the received opinion (cf. Foulkes, 1974) up until the last few years. A similar view was put forward by Antrobus, Antrobus, and Fisher ( 1965) who predicted that recognition by the dreamer of the fact that he or she is dreaming would either immediately terminate the dream or continue in NREM sleep. Likewise, Hall (1977) speculated that lucid dreams may represent "a transition from Stage-I REM to Stage-4 mentation" (p. 312). Green (1968) seems to have been alone in reasoning that, because lucid dreams usually arise from nonlucid dreams, "we may tentatively expect to find lucid dreams occur- fing, as do other dreams, during the 'paradoxical' phase of sleep" (p. 128). Empirical evidence began to appear in the late 1970s supporting Green's speculation that lucid dreams occur during REM sleep. Based on standard sleep recordings of two subjects who reported a total of three lucid dreams upon awakening from REM periods, Ogilvie, Hunt, Sawicki, and McGowan (1978) cautiously concluded that "it may be that lucid dreams begin in REM" (p. 165). How6ver, no proof was given that the reported lucid dreams themselves had in fact occurred during the REM sleep immediately preceding the awakenings and reports. Indeed, the subjects themselves were uncertain about when their lucid dreams had taken place. What was needed to unambiguously establish the physi- ological status of lucid dreams was some sort of on-the-scene report from the dream, an idea first suggested by Tart (1965). LaBerge and his colleagues at Stanford University provided this verification by arranging for subjects to signal the onset of a lucid dream immediately upon realizing that they were dreaming by performing specific patterns of dream actions that would be observable on a polygraph (i.e., eye movements and fist clenches). Using this approach, LaBerge, Nagel, Dement, and Zarcone (1981) reported that the occurrence of lucid dreaming during unequivocal REM sleep had been demonstrated for five subjects. After being instructed in the method of lucid dream induction (MILD) described by LaBerge (1980b), the subjects were fPSYCH(_)rr1 T I ~1 1-- -11 1-.. - ~IA-RDP-R§oQQ7,0%Wt3l;QO.14(WOA~wZ of the 34 nights of the study, 35 iecurou lucid dreams were reported subsequent to spontaneous awaking from various stages of sleep as follows: REM sleep 32 times, NREM Stage-1, twice, and during the transition from NREM Stage-2 to REM, once. The subjects reported maling during 30 of these lucid dreams. After each recording, the reports Sig mentioning signals were submitted along with the respective polysomnograms to a, judge uninformed s of the reports. In 24 cases (90%), the judge was ab of the time 0-second epoch on the basis of correspondence le to select the appropriate 3 signals associated with lucid dream between reported and observed signals. All red according to reports occurred during epochs of unambiguous REM sleep sco the conventional criteria (Rechtschaffen & Kates, 1968). A replication of this study with two additional subjects and 20 more lucid Zarcone, nrMnred identical results (LaBerge. Nagel, Taylor, Dement, & 1981). LaBerge et al. argued that their investigations demonstrated that lucia dreaming usually (though perhaps not exclusively) occurs during REM sleep. This conclusion is supported by research carried out in several other laboratories (Dane, 1984; Fenwick et al., 1984; Hearne, 1978; Ogilvie, Hunt, Kushniruk, & Newman, 1983). ed the physiological state preceding 14 spon Ogilvie et al. (1983) report taneous lucidity signals as unqualified REM in 12 (86%) of the cases; of the remaining 2 cases, I was "ambiguous" REM and the other appeared to be wakefulness. Keith Hearne and Alan Worsley collaborated on a pioneering study of lucid dreaming in which the latter spent 50 nonconsecutive nights in the sleep lab while the former monitored the polygraph. Worsley reported signaling in eight lucid dreams, all of which were described by Hearne (1978) as having occurred during unambiguous REM sleep- Brylowski, LaBerge, Levitan, Booth, and Nelson (1986) monitored a single skilled lucid dreamer for four nights while measuring the subject's H-reflex. The reflex was evoked every 5 seconds and later measured and analyzed for dif- ferences in suppression between lucid and nonlucid REM. They found that the H-reflex was significantly suppressed during lucid REM as compared to nonlucid REM (p < .00i). Because H-reflex suppression is often considered a unique hallmark of REM sleep, this finding should finally lay to rest the notion that lucid dreams do not occur during REM. However, demonstrations that signaling of lucid dreams occurs during REM sleep may raise another kind of question for some readers: What exactly do we tnean by the assertion that lucid dreamers are "asleep?" Perhaps these "dream- ers" are not really dreamers, as some argued in the last century; or perhaps this "sleep" is not really sleep, as some have argued in this century. How do we know that lucid dreamers are "really asleep" when they signal? if we consider perception of the external world as a criterion of being awake (to the external world), we can conclude that they are actually asleep (to the external world) because, although they know they are in the laboratoryv this knowledge is a Approved For Release 2000/08/08 qlA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 25811281 Lal3ER0fppmKr0dAMr,4ft4ease 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 tion of psychophysiological correspondence during REM dreaming. The viability of this approach has been demonstrated for a variety of dreamed behaviors including dreamed hand and eye movements, subjective estima- tion of temporal duration in the dream (LaBerge, 1985a), dreamed singing and counting (LaBerge and Dement, 1982a), voluntary alterations of respira- tion (LaBerge and Dement, 1982b), and dreamed sexual activity (LaBerge, Greenleaf, and Kedzierski, 1983). References Aserinsky. E. (1971). Rapid eye movement density and pattern in the Sleep Of normal young adults. Psychophysiology, 8. 361-375. Cohen, D. (1979). Sleep and dreaming.- Origins, nature and functions~ Oxford: Pergamon. Dane, J. (1983). An empirical evahwian of rim techniques for lucid dream induction. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Georgia State University. Fenwick, P., Schatzman, M., Worsley, A., Ad2MS, I., Stone, S., and Baker, A. (1984). Lucid dreaming: Correspondence between dreamed and actual events'in one subject during REM sleep. Biological Psychology, 18, 243-252. Garfield, P. (1975). Psychological concomitants of the lucid dream state. Sleep Research, 4. 183. Green, C. (1968). 1" drearns. London: Hamish Hamilton- Hearne, K.M.T. (1978). Lucid dreams: An electrophysiological and psychological study. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Liverpool. LaBerge, S. (1980). Lucid dreaming as a learnable skill: A case study. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 51, 1039-1042. LaBerge. S. (1985a). Lucid dreaming. Los Angeles: J.P. Tarcher. LaBerge, S. (1985b). The temporal distribution of lucid dreams. Sleep Research, 14, 113. LaBerge, S., and Dement, W.C. (19822). Lateralization of alpha activity for dreamed singing and counting during REM sleep. Psychophysiology, 19, 331-332. LaBerge, S., and Dement. W.C. (1982b). Voluntary control of respiration during REM sleep. Sleep Research, 11, 107. LaBetge, S., Greenleaf, W., and Kedzierski, B. (1983). Physiological responses to dreamed sex- ual activity during lucid REM sleep. Psychophysiology, 20, 454-455. LaBerge. S., Nagel, L.E., Demerit, W.C., and ZWCOne, V.P. (1981). Lucid dreaming verified by volitional communication during REM sleep. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 52, 7Z7-73Z. Rechtschaffen, A., and Kales, A. (Eds.) (1968). A manual of standardized terninology, techniques and scoring system for sleep stages of human subjects. Bethesda: HEW Neurological Information Network. Tvson, P.D., Ogilvie, R.D., and Hunt, H.T. (1984). Lucid, prelucid, and nonlucid dreams related to the amount of EEG alpha activity during REM sleep. P5ychophysiology, 21, 442-451. Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 -"t I - f"T, I - remaining 21 (28%) as WlAppwmed rnqFcRe*uevaQQQJPN,08 : C MM()n than WILDS (binomial test, p < .0001). Compared to DILDs, WILDs were more frequently immediately preceded by physiological indications of awaken- ing (Chi-squared = 38-39 1 of- P < ~00-00, establi-,hino t - _r the ~ -1i1 in- lucid d' ------- Y "I Classify 9 reams in this manner. See Figures 2 and 3 for illustrations of these tw, types of lucid dreams. The distributions of DILD and WILD latencies from the onset of REM are significantly different (LaBerge, Levitan, & Dement, 1986). A Wald-Wolfowitz !est demonstrated that WILDS A 0 not occur as early or 11ate in REM periods as K DILDs do (p < .00 15). This difference may be simply explained: As a matter of definition, a necessary condition for a WILD to occur is a transitory awakening followed by a return to REM sleep. If the awakening were to happen too near to the beginning of REM, the REM period might simply be aborted. Similarly, if the awakening were to occur too near to the ..natural" end of the REM period, it would be more likely that REM would not resume but that wakefulness would persist or a NREM sleep stage would ensue. TO summarize, an elevated level of CNS activation seems to be a necessary condition for the occurrence of lucid dreams. Were this condition un necessary, T3 T4 LOC- ROC~~ EMG ECG 4~ 1.4 3 ......... Figure 3. A typical lucid dream initiated from a transient awakening during REM (WILD). Six channels of physiological data (left and right temporal EEG IT3 and T41, left and right eye movements ILOC and ROCI, chin muscle tone JEMGl, and electrocardiogram IECGJ) from the last 3 min of a 14-min REM period are shown. The subject awoke at I and after 40 seconds returned to REM sleep at 2, and realized he was dreaming 15 s later and signaled at 3. Next he carried out the agreed -upon experimental task in his lucid dream, singing between signals 3 and 4, and counting between signals 4 and 5. This allowed comparison of left and right hemisphere activation during the two tasks (LaBerge & Dement, 1982b). Note the heart-ra(e acceleration-deceleration Pattern at awakening (1) and at lucidity onset (3) and the skin poterl- tial potential artifacts in the EEG (particularly T4) at lucidity onset (3), Calibrations are 50 ILV and 5 seconds. RD."PIPOZA&RQW400-4"()Jdi2ributed within REM periods and JUCI ry for lucid perhaps every stage of sleep. Why then is CNS activation necessa drearni"g? Evidently the high level of cognitive function involved in lucid . n rnm-snnnd nPly high level of neuronal activation. In terms i dreaming require, of Antrobus's (1986) adaptation of Anderson's (1983) ACT* model of cognition to, dreaming, working memory capacity is proportional to cognitive activation, which in turn is proportional to cortical activation. Becoming lucid requires an adequa e level of working memory to activate the presleep intention to recognize t s appa ntly not always available I I - . . -re.. that Ine is dreaming. This level of activation i during sleep but normally only during phasic REM. RAL DISTRIBUTION OF LUCID DREAMS THE TEMPO St. Thomas Aquinas mentioned "that sometimes while asleep a man may polge that what he sees is a dream, discerning as it were, between things and that this happens especially "towards the end of sleep, in their images" and ,ober men and those who are gifted with a strong imagination (Aquinas, 1947, p. 430). Van Eeden (1913) stated that his lucid dreams invariably occurred between 5 and 8 o'clock in the morning. By way of explanation, he quoted Dante's characterization of these hours as the time "when swallows begin to warble and our mind is least clogged by the matefial body." Garfield (1975) exactly agreed with van Eeden's observation, though perhaps not with his poetic explanation. LaBerge (1979) plotted the times of 212 of his lucid dreams and found their pattern of occurrence closely fit the usual cyclic distribution of REM periods. He suggested that the fact that most REM sleep occurs toward the end of the night provided a plausible explanation for Van Eeden's and Garfield's obser- vations. Later, LaBerge (1980a) tested this hypothesis by comparing the tem- poral distribution of his lucid dreams with that expected on the basis of normative data from Williams, Karacan, and Jursch (1974). A chi-square test indicated that the observed distribution of lucid dreams in the first three REM pefiods was not significantly different from what would be expected on the basis of mean REM period lengths at different times of the night. Cohen (1979) argued that the left hemisphere shows a gradual increase in dominance across the night (but see Armitage, Hoffmann, Moffitt, & Shearer, 1985). Since left-hemisphere abstract symbolic functions are undoubtedly crucial for lucid dreaming, Cohen's GILD hypothesis led LaBerge (1985b) to predict ime of night. that the probability of dream lucidity should increase with t This hypothesis was tested by LaBerge et al. (1986). For each of their 12 lubjects, a median split for total REM time was determined; I I of their subjects had more lucid dreams in the later half of their REM than in the earlier (binomial te't; P '- .0 1). For the combined sample, relative lucidity probability was calcu- lated for REM pefiods I through 6 of the night by dividing the total number of Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 J I ErFILIN LAUtKf-A lucid dreams observed in a giApp=VeAFqihlR&l&A"-2QQNjqWPA U"T stage REM for the same REM period. A regression analysis clearly demonstrated that relative lucidity probability was a linear function of ordinal REM period number (r = .98, p < .000 1). No measure of activation (EM, RR, HR, SP) even approached signifi icance when entered into the regression equation, indicating that the increase in lucid dream probability is not explained by a general increase in CNS activation across the night. These results strongly support the conclusion that lucid dreams are more likely to occur in later REM periodsthan in earlier ones-provided, of course, that sleep is continued long enough. Another factor influencing the temporal distribution of lucid dreams is initiation type. LaBerge's (1987) personal record of lucid dreams indicates that, for him, W-type lucid dreams are over 10 times more frequent during afternoon naps than they are during the first REM veriod of the nielit (n < -0002) EEG ALPHA ACTIVITY DURING REM LUCID DREAMS The fact that lucid dreaming occurs during REM sleep partially defines the sort of EEG activity characteristic of lucid dreams. However, the standard crite- fia for determining REM sleep (Rechtschaffen & Kales, 1968) are quite general when referring to the EEG, being simply "relatively low voltage, mixed fre- quency," without specifying how much of which frequencies might be mixed. As noted previously, REM sleep is a labile and heterogeneous state. For exam- ple, during REM, the EEG sometimes shows predominant 2 to 3 Hz "sawtooth" waves, whereas at other times it may exhibit prominent 8 to 10 Hz alpha waves. Consequently, the question arises: Does the range of EEG activity characteristic of lucid dreams reliably differ in any way from that of nonlucid dreams? In a series of studies, Ogilvie and colleagues have pursued the hypothesis that lucid dreams are associated with high levels of alpha activity. In the first of these investigations, they came to the initial "impression that alpha is the domi- nant EEG frequency during lucid dreams" on the rather shaky grounds of a comparison of "percent alpha in the EEG" of just two lucid dream REM periods with percentage alpha for six nonlucid dream REM periods for a single subject (Ogilvie, Hunt, Sawicki, & McGowan, 1978, p. 165). Ogilvie, Hunt, Tyson, Lucescu, and Jeakins (1982) followed up their pre- liminary work with a larger study in which 10 subjects (all good dream recallers, with a wide range of lucid dreaming ability) were recorded 2 nights each in the sleep laboratory, during which they were awakened four times per night from REM sleep: half of the time during periods of relatively high alpha and half of the time during relatively low alpha. Dream reports were collected and rated on a lucidity scale by a judge blind to the awakening condition. Significantly higher lucidity ratings were obtained for high-alpha compared to Jow-alpha awakenings. Several methodological problems of this study cast doubt on Ogilvie el al.'s C pSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY OF LUCID DREAMING 141 RDP96-Oq789F,%gtqRcl9gli,99919?ociated with high alpha activity. One c (1982) con usion is that the differences found between low and high alpha reports were based primarily on the degrees of prelucidity in the reports. Even more important, we have no assurance of whether, in either condition, the episode of prelucidity or lucidity occurred in association with the final 20 to 30 second period of either high or low alpha activity that determined the awakening condition . Moreover, because none of the dreams classified as lucid were marked by any signals, we have no proof that they were in fact lucid dreams, nor in any case do we have any way of determining what the degree of alpha activity was during the frequently brief episodes of lucidity. Because of Ogilvie et al.'s (1982) design, we cannot exclude the possibility that what their study may actually have demonstrated is that the tendencies of lucid vary with the amount of alpha activity either just before or during the process of awakening. Support for this interpretation comes from an earlier studyg which concluded that mentation reports collected from REM periods showing EEGs with a high proportion of alpha waves were associated with -sorne feeling of control over the content" and were frequently labeled by subjects as "thoughts" rather than "dreams" (Goodenough, Shapiro, Holden, & Steinschriber, 1959). There is another possible design problem with the Ogilvie et at. (1982) study that seems serious enough to merit mention: The judges' lucidity ratings were based not upon the spontaneous dream reports but on the subjects' answers to rather leading questions subsequently posed by the interviewer, such as "Was there any point when you wondered whether or not you might be dreaming?" and "Was there any point at which you knew you were dreaming while the dream was going on?" The demand characteristics should be obvious. Addi- tionally, there is a problem that retrospective judgments about earlier states of mind are likely to be confounded by our current mental state. Cognitive capaci- ties we currently possess are likely to be mistakenly remembered as having been present in an earlier state. A conservative approach should perhaps put more weight on the original dream reports; in the present context, one would like to know how many subjects spontaneously mentioned in their reports that they had been prelucid or lucid. In a more recent study, Ogilvie et al. (1983) remedied several of these methodological problems and arrived at a conclusion regarding alpha activity and lucidity unsupportive of their earlier work. They studied eight lucid dreamers for I to 4 nights in a sleep lab. The subjects were awakened from REM following spontaneous or cued eye movement signals. The cue buzzer sounded after 15 minutes of REM during periods of either high or low alpha activity. The subjects were to signal at the cue and again 30 seconds later if in a lucid dream. Reports were elicited 30 to 60 seconds after cued or spontaneous signals and rated for lucidity. Contrary to their earlier findings, the low-alpha condition yielded Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 U-NLN LAtJER(- ,t Approved For Release 2000/08/08 slightly more lucid dreams than the high-alpha condition; however, this dif- ference was not statistically significant. Addressing this same issue, LaBerg e (I 980b) performed a Fourier analysis on EEG activity (C3/A 1) for a single luci d dream REM period. Comparison of the spectral profiles for the lucid and no.- lucid portions of the REM period revealed alpha activity for the nonlucid portion to more closely resemble the waking EEG spectrum than did that in the lucid portion; however, the two REM samples did not significantly differ. In summary, it would seem that at this point no reliable association of ILc;,i dreaming with alpha activity (whether high or low) has been established, A more productive approach to the question of EEG in lucid versus nonlucid REM would probably involve quantifying whole-band EEG frequency spectra from several electrode placements and comparing signal-verified lucid dreams with nonlucid controls. NREM LUCID DREAMS The findings summarized here indicating that lucid dreams typically occur in REM sleep should not be misconstrued to suggest that lucid dreams never occur in NREM sleep. In fact, in LaBerge, Nagel, Demerit and Zarcone's initial study (1981), lucid dreams were reported by two subjects after spontaneous awakening from NREM sleep (Stage-2 once; Stage- 1, twice). The Stage-2 report indicated only a brief morne 'nt of lucidity before awakening; because the subject was unable to signal while lucid we cannot be certain that her experience took place during Stage-2 sleep and not while awakening. As for the NREM Stage- I reports, although the subject reported signaling before awakening on these occa- sions, no signals could be verified on her polysomnograrn. LaBerge (1980a) pollysomnographically recorded a single trained subject during sleep onset on 3 consecutive nights. The subject reported a rich history of hypnagogic imagery. On the experimental nights, she made an effort to retain consciousness while entering sleep-onset dream states. "Drearning- was dis- tinguished from other sleep-onset mentation by the two requirements that (1) the subject was subjectively asleep (i.e., unaware of the actual position of her body in bed) and (2) that she hallucinated her body within the dream scene. On each of the experimental sessions (lasting about 2 hours), the subject repeatedly rested quietly, but vigilantly, and while drifting off to sleep counted to herself ("One, two, three, . . .") until she began to dream, at which point she awakened and tape-recorded a mentation report. In 25 of the 42 resultant dream reports (all of which were very short), the subject claimed to have been lucid. The following is a typical report: "I am in the grocery store, going down an aisle; only I am standing on a cart. It is whizzing real fast. As I go by the Coke and Pepsi bottles, I realize that I am dreaming. I think to look at my hands, but they won't move up to eye level " (p. 10 1 ). Note the absence of voluntary control over the body image, a very unusual condition for REM lucid dreams. Visual PSYL"111 _RDP96-0PZ§%WgQQJr4Q"16d2aII of these "dreamlets" to have inspection 0ng Stage-I sleep , with slow eye movements. occurred duri This lear that the observed frequency of NREM lucid pilot study makes it c esame point is ... epend on expeli.mental demand characteristics. Th dreaming Will a made by Dane (1983), who found a high proportion of lucid dream reports deriving from NREM under conditions of heightened attention during sleep onset plicit instructions that "dreams occur during NREM as well as during and ex A comparative study of REM versus NREM (and "wak- 'Em sleep" (p- 249) to be udone. ing") lucid dreaming ciearly needs pSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS DURING REM SLEEP one of the major obstacles impeding the development of human con- sciousness as a topic of rigorous scientific study has been that the only direct account available of the private events occurring in a person's mind is his or her own subjective report- Subjective reports, unfortunately, are not subject to objec- tive verification-at least not directly. To make matters worse, of all the "bad witnesses--as Heraclitus called the senses- "introspection" appears to be the least reliable. Introspection is not really even a sense: We do not simply "look and see" the contents of our minds; what we ,see,' there is largely dependent on what we expect to see based on our theories of ourselves. These theories tend to portray ourselves as more consistent and rational than we really are (Nisbett & Wilson, 1977). Given that the only witness is of uncertain reliability, what we need in order to study consciousness more objectively is a means of corroborat- ing the testimony of the "I-witness," and this is precisely the role of the psychophysiological approach. A key element in this new strategy is the idea of making full use of the subject's cooperativeness and intelligence. A frequent practice in experimental psychology requires the deception of subjects about the true nature of the experiment- This has the advantage of minimizing the effect the subject's knowledge might have on the experiment. But this particular meth- odology is inappropriate when the object of the investigation is the subject's own consciousness. In this case, a more suitable approach is one in which the di- chotomous subject/experimenter relationship is modified: Perhaps subjects should be regarded as-to borrow an anthropological term-participant- observers. What about the problem of the uncertain reliability of introspective accounts of consciousness? There are two strategies likely to increase our confidence in the reliability of subjective reports: In the first place, it helps to study highly trained (and lucid) subjects who are skillful reporters. Second, we can make use of the fact that the convergent agreement of physiological measures and subjec- tive reports provides a degree of validation to the latter (Stoyva and Kamiya, 1%8). The fact that lucid dreamers can remem6er to perform predetermined ac- Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 1. 11 v IL11 LABERCE PSYCM-11 ... tions and signal to the laborat04*99kV&dcRGI3J?gekMfi) UMPIRR C to dream research: Lucid dreamers, he proposed, could carry out diverse dream experiments marking the exact time of particular dream events, allowing the derivation of precise psychophysiological correlations and the methodical testing of hypotheses. (LaBerge, Nagel. Dement, & Zarcone, 1981, p. 727) This strategy has been put into practice by the Stanford group in a number of studies summarized by LaBerge (1985a). i LaBerge first of all pointed out that the data reported in LaBerge, Nagel, Dement, and Zarcone (198 1) and LaBerge, Nagel, Taylor, Dement, and Zarcone (1981) indicate that there is a very direct and reliable relationship between gaze shifts reported in lucid dreams and the direction of polygraphically recorded eye movements. It should be noted that the results obtained for lucid dr -am ava-.- i_ a e W1 D n , 1984 Fen ick et al-, 1984; Hearne, 1978; Ogilvie, et al., 1982) are uch rn stronger than the generally weak correlations demonstrated by earlier invesliga- tions testing the notion that the dreamer's eyes move with his or her hallucinated dream gaze, which had to rely on the chance occurrence of a highly recognizable eye movement pattern that was readily matchable to the subject's reported dreat" 11 activity (e.g., RoffWarg, Demerit, Muzio, & Fisher, 1962). This would seem to illustrate the methodological advantage of using lucid dreamers. I LaBerge (1980a, 1985a) reports having straightforwardly approached the I problem of dream time by asking subjects to estimate various intervals of time f during their lucid dreams. Signals marking the beginning and end of the subjec- tive intervals allowed comparison with objective time. In all cases, LaBerge reported, time estimates during the lucid dreams were very close to the actual time between signals. In another study, LaBerge and Demerit (I 982a) demonstrated the possibility of voluntary control of respiration during lucid dreaming. They recorded three lucid dreamers who were asked to either breathe rapidly or to hold their breaths (in their lucid dreams), marking the invertal of altered respiration with eye movement signals. The subjects reported successfidly carrying out the agreed- upon tasks a total of nine times, and in every case, a judge was able to correctly predict on the basis of the polygraph recordings which of the two patterns had been executed (P < .002). Evidence of voluntary control of other muscle groups during REM was found by LaBerge, Nagel, Dement, and Zarcone (198 1) while testing a variety of lucidity signals. They observed that a sequence of left and right dream-fist clenches resulted in a corresponding sequence of left and fight forearm twitches as measured by EMG. However, the amplitude of the twitches bore an unreliable relationship to the subjective intensity of the dreamed action. Because all skeletal muscle groups except those that govern eye movements and breathing suffer a profound loss of tone during REM sleep, it is to be expected that most muscular responses to dreamed movements will be feeble. Nonetheless, these responses One might say that the k-R? cOMM&IJ9044001002ginal dream. dreamer's body responds to dreamed actions with movements that are but shad- ows of the originals. Further support of his notion comes from a study (Fenwick et al., 1984) of e a single highly proficient lucid dreamer (Alan Worsley, who had also be n llearne's 119781 subject) who carried out a variety of dreamed muscular move merils while being polygraphically recorded. In one experiment, Worsley ex ecuted movements during lucid dreams involving finger, forearm, and shoulder muscle groups (flexors) while EMG was recorded from each area. The results were consistent: The axial muscles showed no measurable EMG activity, where ndy showed lower amplitude and shorter bursts" as the forearm EMG "consiste riment with the lower limbs yielded compared to the finger EMG. A similar expe cimi suits. In addition to the finding that REM atonia shows a central- perip eral gradient with motor inhibit on least for the reported that similar e I most distal muscles, Fen h xperiments comparing EMG response to wick e1 al. less dreamed arm and leg flexions and extensions suggested that flexors were I tion to EMG, an accelerometer was utilized in inhibited than extensors. In addi several experiments demonstrating that Worsley was able to produce minor movements of his fingers. toes, and feet during REM, though not of his legs. Fenwick et al. also presented the results of a single experiment suggesting that dream speech may be initiated in the expiratory phase of respiration just as it usually does during waking. in still another experiment they demonstrated the voluntary production of smooth pursuit eye movements during a lucid dream. LaBerge (1986) has carried out related experiments in which two subjects track- ed the tip of their fingers moving slowly left to right during four conditions: (1) awake, eyes open; (2) awake, eyes closed mental imagery; (3) lucid dreaming; and (4) imagination ("dream eyes closed") during lucid dreaming. The subjects showed saccadic eye movements in the two imagination conditions (2 and 4), and smooth-tracking eye movements during dreamed or actual tracking (condi- tions I and 3). Fenwick el al. also showed that Worsley was able to. perceive and respond to environmental stimuli (electrical shocks) without awakening from his lucid dream. This result raises a theoretical issue: If we take perception of the external world to be the essential criterion for wakefulness (LaBerge, Nagel, Demerit, & Zarcone, 1981), then it would seem that Worsley must have been at least par- tially awake. On the other hand, when environmental stimuli are incorporated into dreams without producing any subjective or physiological indications of arousal, it appears reasonable to speak of the perception as having occurred during sleep. Furthermore, it may be possible, as LaBerge 09800 has sug- gested, for one sense to remain functional and "awake" while others fall .. asleep." As long as we continue to consider wakefulness and sleep as a simple dichotomy, we will lie in a Procrustian bed that is bound at times to be most uncomfortable. There must be degrees of being awake just as there are degrees of Approved For Release 2000/08/08 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 150 -1 - 1. . .1.1 t,At5LR(' F Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : C being asleep (i.e., the conventional sleep stages). Before finding our way out of this muddle, we will probably need to characterize a wider variety of states of consciousness than these few currently distinguished (e.g., dreaming, sleei)lng. waking, and so on). Because many researchers have reported cognitive task dependency of at I alization of EEG alpha activity in the waking state, LaBerge undertook a pilot study to determine whether similar relationships would hold in the lucid dream stale. The two tasks selected for comparison were dreamed singing and dreamed counting, activities expected to result in relatively greater engagement Of the subjects' left and right cerebral hemispheres, respectively. Integrated alpha band EEG activity was derived from electrodes placed over right and left temporal lobes while four subjects sang and counted in their lucid dreams (marking the beginning and end of each task by eye movement, ig al,). s n s The results supported the hypothesized lateralization of alpha activity: The right hemisphere was more active than the left during singing-, during counting the reverse was true. These shifts were similar to those observed during actual singing and counting (LaBerge & Dement, 1982b). Sexual activity is a rather commonly reported theme of lucid dreams (Gar- field, 1979; LaBerge, 1985a). However, at this point, only a single physiological investigation of lucid dream sex.has been published. LaBerge, Greenleaf, and Kedzierski (1983) undertook a pilot study to determine the extent to which subjectively experienced sexual activity during REM lucid dreaming would be reflected in physiological responses. Their subject was a highly proficient lucid dreamer who spent the night sleeping in the laboratory. Sixteen channels of physiological data, including EEG, EOG, EMG, respiration, skin conductance level (SCL), heart rate, vaginal EMG (VEMG), and vaginal pulse amplitude (VPA), were recorded. The experimental protocol called for the subject to make specific eye movement signals at the following points: when she realized she was dreaming (i.e., the onset of the lucid dream); when she began sexual activity (in the dream); and when she experienced orgasm. The subject reported a lucid dream in which she carried out the experimental task exactly as agreed upon. Data analysis revealed a significant correspondence between her subjective re- port and all but one of the autonomic measures; during the 15-second orgasm epoch, mean levels for VEMG activity, VPA, SCL, and respiration rate reached their highest values and were significantly elevated compared to means for other REM epochs. Contrary to expectation, heart rate increased only slightly and nonsignificantly. LaBetge (1985a) reports replicating this experiment using two male sub- jects. In both cases, respiration showed striking increases in rate. Again, there were no significant elevations of heart rate. Interestingly, although both subjects reported vividly realistic orgasms in their lucid dreams, neither actually ejacu- lated, in contrast to the "wet dreams" commonly experienced by adolescent Approved For Release 2000/08/08 : CIA- P~ycf1()Ptly-~."-- -- - DP96-00789ROO3100140001-2 les The mechanism ot nocturnal emissions is probably local reflex irritability rna - - ms do not necessarily involve dream content of a sexual nature, us beca se wet drea in contrast to lucid dream orgasms, which are obviously sexual; it appears we have two extreme cases, "bottom-up" versus "top-down" orgasms. ri nce All of these results support the conclusion that the events we expe C while asleep and dreaming produce effects on our brains (and to a lesser extent, hodies) remarkably similar to those that would be produced if we were actually to ..perience the corresponding events while awake. 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