THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND ELECTRIC CURRENTS Volume 2 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND ELECTRIC CURRENTS Volume 2 Proceedings of the Fourth Annual National Conference of the Neuroelectric Society, held in San Antonio, Texas, March 10-12, 1971 Edited by Norman L. Wulfsohn Associate Professor of Anesthesiology University of Texas Medical School at San Antonio San Antonio, Texas and Anthony Sances Jr. Professor and Chairman, l3iotnedical Engincering Marquette University and Medical College of Wisconsin Milwaukee, Wisconsin PLENUM PRESS - NEW YORK-LONDON 1971 Approved For Release 2000/08/07 d For Release 2000108107 CIA-RDP96-00787ROO0500200005-2 An th Alan Davir' Bern,- Jack All to: THE NEURO-ELECTRIC SOCIETY 1971 CONFERENCE CHAIRMAN: Norman L. Wulfsohn CONFERENCE SECRETARY: Edward F. Gelineau University of Texas Medical School San Antonio OFFICERS Anthony Sances, Jr., President, Marquette University Alan R. Kahn, Vice President, Medtronic Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota David V. f(eynolds, Vice President, University of Windsor Bernard Saltzberg, Vice President, Tulane University Jack J. Snyder, Secretary, Hoffman-La Roche, New Jersey NATIONAL ADVISORY BOARD Edgar J. Baldes Joseph J. Barboriak Robert 0. Becker Carmine D. Clemente Donald F. Flickinger Lester A. Geddes Ernest 0. Henschel Reginald A. Herin Rayinond T. Kado Sanford J. Larson Irving Lutsky Simon E. Markovich James A.' Meyer James W. Prescott Donald H. Reigel Alfred W. Richardson Lawrence R. Rose Charles E. Short Kenneth A. Siogesmund Charles F. Stroebel Calvin C. Turbes Arthur S. Wilson Norman L. Wulfsohn All enquiries for the Neuro-Electric Society should be addressed to: Mr. Jack Snyder Senior Research Associate Department of Medical Research Hoffman-La Roche Inc. Nutley, Now Jersey 07110 I'REFACE, This second volume of the "Nervous System and Electric Currents" represents the collected papers of the Proceedings of the fourth annual national conference, organised by the Neuro-Electric Society. It i4ill be held at the Convention Center, San Antonio, Texas,March 10-12, 1971. The interests of the Neuro-Electric Society focus upon the measurement and quantification of neuro-electric phenomena, neuro- stimulation and recording techniques and procedures, and the appli- cations of biomedical engineering to the furthering of our under- standing about neural-behavioral processes. These research papers further explore the influence of electrical currents on the neurophysiological correlates of the nervous system. The "central'; nervous system is still the main focus of research. Tlie use of transcranially applied electric currents in the production of electro-sleep and electro-anesthesia is the important practical clinical aspect of these interesting researches. Ilowever, a new emphasis is now also beginning to be placed on the effects of these applied currents to the "peripheral'' nervous system. The Editors wish to thank the following sponsors: Office of Naval Research, Washington, D.C. (Grant No. NR 108-918); Medtronic Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota; and Plenum Press, New York, New York. We also wish to thank for their cooperation the Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation, Bethesda, Maryland, the In- stitute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (Group of Engineering in Medicine and Biology), New York, New York, and the International Society for Electro-sleep and Electro-Anesthesia , Graz, Austria. We would like to thank Mr. E. Gelineau and Mrs. Linda Peters for their untiring help in preparation of this Proceedings Book. The Editors, Norman L. Wulfsohn March 1971 Anthony Sances, Jr. oil iv~ LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Robert D. Allison, Chief, Cardiovascular Physiology, Scott ard White Clinic, Temple Texas 1~txim Asa, Director, Department of Physiology and Clinical Research, Monmouth Medical Center, Long Branch, New Jersey, S.C. Ayivorh, Biophysics Research Unit, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana L. E. Baker, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas Edmundo Baumann, Institute of Bio-Medical Electronics, Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Division of Neuro- surgery, Toronto General Hospital, Toronto, Canada D. Brittain, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston,-Texas Joseph D. Bronzino, Worcester Foundation for Experimental Biology, Shrewsbury, Massachusetts Leo A. Bullara, Huntington Institute of Applied Medical Research, Pasadena, California Neil R. Burch, Head, Psychophysiology Division, Texas Research Institute of Mental Sciences, Texas Medical Center, Houston, Texas P. Cabler, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas Enrique J. A. Carregal, University of Southern California School I of Medicine, Los Angeles, California Guillermo Chavez-Ibarra, Department de Investigacion Cientifica, Centro Medico Nacional, IMSS, Mexico, D. F. ix -00787ROO0500200005-2 /08/07: CIA-RDP96 2000 ed For Release Dpro L15T OF CONTRIBUTORS M. E. Cherviakov, Laboratory of Experimental Physiology for Animal Resuscitation, Academy of Medical Sciences, First Moscow Medical Institute, Moscow, USSR J. K. Cywinski, Department of Anesthesia, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts Jos6 M. R. Delgado, Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut Jerry S. Driessner, University of Texas Medical School, San Antonio, Texas Daniel A. Driscoll, Union College, Schenectady, New York P. W. Droll, Research Scientist, Anies Research Center, NASA, Moffett Field, California Allan 11. Frey, Technical Director, Randomline, Incorporated, Willow Grove, Pennsylvania G. Harry G. Friedman, Research Program Manager, Medtronic Incorporated, Minneapolis, Minnesota L. A. Geddes, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas E. Gelineau, Department of Anesthesiology, University of Texas J'I Medical School, San Antonio, Texas Oldrich GrUnner, Balneological Research Institute, Working Center Spa, Jesenik-Graefenberg, Czechoslovakia A. H. L. Gurvich, Laboratory of Experimental Physiology for Animal Resuscitation, Academy of Medical Sciences, First Moscow Medical Institute, Moscow, USSR Susan Halter, Department of Anatomy, Queen's University, Kingston, S. Ontario, Canada Warren Harding, Orthopedic Resident, University of California at Bi Los Angeles Medical Center, Los Angeles, California L. Hause, Departments of Pathology and Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin Nornmn Hoffman, Departments of Neurosurgery and Chemistry, Medical College of Wisconsin and Marquette University, Milwaukee Wisconsin Michael Hoshiko, Department of Pathology and Audiology, Southern ;71 Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois 96- 78 500200005-2 1rVVt;U r 0~11F"71WGI, A PP OF CONTRIBUTORS It C-4 CONTRIBUTORS Xi 4y for Animal 9.1su, Systems Analyst, Department of Psychiatry of the University Moscow of Missouri School of Medicine at the Missouri Institute of Psychiatry, St. Louis, Missouri I-S General X. Itil, Professor and Associate Chairman, Department of Psychiatry of the University of Missouri School of Medicine at the Missouri Institute of Psychiatry, St. Louis, Missouri iversity E. J. lufer, Research Scientist, Ames Research Center, NASA, Moffett Field, California t, San f, P. Kaverina, Laboratory of Experimental Physiology for Animal Resuscitation, Academy of Medical Sciences, First Moscow -)rk 11-fedical Institute, Moscow, USSR A. S. Khalafalla, Systems and Research Center, Honeywell NASA, Incorporated, St. Paul, Minnesota )rated Judith M. Kilby, Faculty of Science, University of Science and , Technology, Kumasi, Ghana G. A. Kitzmann, NRC-NASA Resident Research Associate, Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California ,as J. J. Konikoff, Environmental Sciences Laboratory, General Electric Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania of Texas Jan Kryspin, Institute of Bio-Medical Electronics, Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Division of Neurosurgery, Icing Center Toronto General Hospital, Toronto, Canada A. C. K. Kutty, Palat House, Panniyankara Calicut, Kerala, India Animal Moscow M. N .Kuzin, Laboratory of Experimental Physiology for Animal Resuscitation, Academy of Medical Sciences, First Moscow Medical Institute, Moscow, USSR y, Kingston, S. J. Larson, Department of Neurosurgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin ~Eornia at a Benjamin Lesin, Orthopedic Research Resident, Rancho Los Amigos Hospital, Downey, California -dical College Aime Limoge, L'ecole Nationale de Chirurgie-Dcntaire de Paris, Montrouge, France ~~rY, Medical iwaukee H. M. Liventsev, Laboratory of Experimental Physiology for Animal Resuscitation, Academy of Medical Sciences, First Moscow Medical Institute, Moscow, USSR Southern 1- 71" 777~777 7- -Ir7 A TF, '0 Xii LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS list OF C Y. Maass, Bioengineer, COMM/ADP Laboratory, 11. Q., USAECOM,,Fort 0. P. Monmouth, New Jersey John Marasa, Scientific Programmer Analyst, Department of Robert Psychiatry of the University of Missouri School of Medicine at the Missouri Institute of Psychiatry, St. Louis, Missouri Donald Simon E. Markovich, Clinical Associate Professor of Neurology, University of Miami, School of Medicine, Coral Gables, Florida A. W. Richard E. McKenzie, University of Texas Medical School, San Antonio, Texas R. Donald R. McNeal, Director of Neuromuscular E ngineering, Rancho Los'Amigos Hospital, Downey, California C. Row Jose Medina-Jimenez, Somepsic, Mexico, D. F. V. D. Minh, Pulmonary Research Fellow University of California, Saul P San Diego School of Medicine, University Hospital of San Diego County, San Diego, California M. Rul L. H. Montgomery, Assistant Professor, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee A. Sai Vert Mooney, Chief, Amputee and Problem Fracture Service, Rancho Los Amigos Hospital, Downey, California Rene Kenneth M. Moser, Associate Professor of Medicine, Director, Pulmonary Division, University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, San Diego, California 0. H. 6. A. Negovskii, Laboratory of Experimental Physiology for Animal Herina Resuscitation, Academy of Medical Sciences, First Moscow Medical Institute, Moscow, USSR C. 11. Nute, Computer Specialist, Department of Psychiatry of the University of Missouri-School of Medicine at the Missouri S. 1. Institute of Psychiatry, St. Louis, Missouri E. Otis, Department of Orthopedics, Monmouth Medical Center, Long John Branch, New Jersey Robert Pearson, Department of Ncurophysiology, Rancho Los Amigos Hospital, Downey, California CONTRIBUTORS Vlf Of CONTRIBUTORS -~OM, Fort )f Medicine Missouri 70logy, es, San Rancho :ornia, San itY School Rancho or, _~go Animal 'Cow of the ,)Uri ir, Long .kmigos Xiii V. P. Photiades, Biophysics Research Unit, Faculty of Pharmacy, Viiiversity of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana )zbert 11. Pudenz, University Of Southern California School of Medicine, Pasadena, California ~;-nAld 11. Reigel, Departments of Neurosurgery and Chemistry, :-Iedicil College of Wisconsin and Marquette University, 11,tilviaukee, Wisconsin A. W. Richardson, Department of Physiology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois R. J. Riggs, Faculty of Science, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana C. Romero-Sierra, Department of Anatomy, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada Saul If. Rosenthal, Associate Professor, Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Medical School, San Antonio, Texas H.Rubin, Department of Physiology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois A. Sances, Jr., Department of Biomedical Engineering, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin Rene Sanchez-Sinencio, Instituto Mexicano de Electrosueno y Electroanesthesia, Mexico, D. F. 0. H. Schmitt, Department of Biophysics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota Iferman P. Schwan, Electromedical Division, Moore School of Electrical. Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania S. I. Schwartz, Department of Surgical Research, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, New York John 11. Seipel, Director, Neurology Department, Maryland State Psychiatric Research Center, Baltimore, Maryland; Chief of Neurological Research, Friends of Psychiatric Research, Inc.; and Clinical Instructor in Neurology, Georgetown University Hospital, Washington, D. C. LIST OF Xiv LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS N. L. D. Shapiro, Computer-Scientist, Department of Psychiatry of the University of Missouri School of Medicine at the Missouri Institute of Psychiatry, St. Louis, Missouri Will~l C. Norman Shealy, Chief of Neurosurgery, Gundersen Clinic, Associate Clinical Professor of Neurological Surgery, E . University of Minnesota. Assistant Clinical ProfessorD. of Neurological Surgery, University of Wisconsin Medical School, Madison, Wisconsin V. D. C. Hunter Shelden, University of Southern California School of Medicine, Pasadena, California E. J. K. A. Siegesmund, Department of Anatomy, Medical C(Alcge of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin Roger C. Simon, Department of Physiology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois Hans-Guenther Stadelmayr-Maiyores, Munich, West Germany K. Steven Staneff, San Angelo, Texas D. B. Stratton, Department of Physiology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois B. J. Tabak, Laboratory of Experimental Physiology for Animal Resuscitation, Academy of Medical Sciences, First Moscow Medical Institute, Moscow, USSR J. A. Tanner, Control Systems Laboratory, National Research Council, Ottawa, Canada R. L. Testerman, Department of Surgical Research, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, New York 11. C. Tien, Michigan Institute of Psychosynthesis, Lansing, Michigan W. J. Wajszczuk, Section of Cardiology, V. A. Hospital, Wilmington, Delaware Edgar L. Watkins, General Dynamics, Pomona, California E. R. Winkler, Department of Physiology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois 01 V CONTRIBUTORS XV -ONTRIBUTORS of the L. Wulfsohn, Department of Anesthesiology, University of Texas Xedical School, San Antonio, Texas souri V111ard G. Yergler, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana of D. I.. Yorde, Department of Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, School, ~Iilwaukee, Wisconsin D. Zhukovskii, Laboratory of Experimental Physiology for Animal -o I of Resuscitation, Academy of Medical Sciences, First Moscow Medical Institute, Moscow, USSR J. Zuperku, Medical College of Wisconsin, Marquette University, ,Milwaukee, Wisconsin Ly of , New m.ington, Approved For Release 2000/08/07 CIA-RDP96-00787ROO x1v LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS D. Shapiro, Computer Scientist, Department of Psychiatry of the University of Missouri School of Medicine at the Missouri Institute of Psychiatry, St. Louis, Missouri C. Norman Shealy, Chief of Neurosurgery, Gundersen Clinic, Associate Clinical Professor of Neurological Surgery, University of Minnesota. Assistant Clinical Professor of Neurological Surgery, University of Wisconsin Medical School, Madison, Wisconsin C. Hunter Shelden, University of Southern California School of Medicine, Pasadena, California K. A. Siegesmund, Department of Anatomy, Medica~ College 6f Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin Roger C. Simon, Department o,f Physiology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois Hans-Guenther Stadelmayr-Maiyores, Munich, West Germany K. Steven Staneff, San Angelo, Texas D~ B. Stratton, Department of Physiology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois B. J. Tabak, Laboratory of Experimental Physiology for Animal Resuscitation, Academy of Medical Sciences, First Moscow Medical Institute, Moscow, USSR J. A. Tanner, Control Systems Laboratory, National Research Council, Ottawa, Canada R. L. Testerman, Department of Surgical Research, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, New York 11. C. Tien, Michigan Institute of Psychosynthesis, Lansing, Michigan W. J. Wajszczuk, Section of Cardiology, V. A. Hospital, Wilmington, Delaware Edgar L. Watkins, General Dynamics, Pomona, California E. R. Winkler, Department of Physiology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois C 0 N T E N T S SECTION 1 ELECTRO-NEUROPHYSIOLOGY I 3 Radio Communication with the Brain . . . . . . . . . . J. M. R. Delgado On the Penetration of UBF Energy Through the, Head . . . . . . 11 A. H. Frey Evaluation of Electrostimulation of Hearing by Evoked Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 R. C. Simon and M. Hoshiko-. '-Iechanisms of Electricity Conduction in Brain and Kidney Studied by Impedance Measurements and Chrono- potentiometric Polarography . . . d . . . . . . . 19 J. Kryspin and E. Baumann Bioelectric Potential Changes in Bone During Immobilization 25 J. J. Konikoff SECTION 2 ELECTRO-NEUROPHYSIOLOGY' II A Neural Feedback Circuit Associated with Sleep-Waking. . . . 29 J. D. Bronzino Autonomic Nervous Control of the Intrinsic-Cardiac Pacemaker and Its Electronic Analogue Simulator 35 J. K. Cywinski, W. J. Wajszczuk, and A. C. K. Kutty A Theoretical Analysis of RF Lesions Using Spherical Electrodes . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . 47 D. A. Driscoll xvii 'i4 4. For Release 2000108/07 CIA-RDP96-007 CONTENTS SECTION 3 f Ire t ELECTRO-NEUROPHYSIOLOGY III Period Analysis Of the Clinical Electroencephalogram . . . 55 N. R. Burch i W. Spectral Analysis of the EEG on the PDP-12 . . . . 57 . . . . . C. H. Nute, J. Marasa, and T. M. Itil Period Analysis of the EEG on the PDP-12 . . . . . 59 V. . . . . . D. Shapiro, W. Hsu, and T. M. Itil Develo Psychosynthesis: A TV-Cybernetic Hologram Model . . 61 K. . . . . H. C. Tien SECTION 4 The C' NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENTS C rerip, The Effects of DC Current on Synaptic Endings . . . 69 . . . . . D. E. Yorde, K. A. Siegesmund, A. Sances, Jr., and E. S. J. Larson The Effect of Magneto-Inductive Energy on Reaction Time Performance . . . . . . 75 ' o;h: an~ D. P. Photiades, R. J. Riggs, S. C .A;iv J. M. Kilby "What Effect of an Electromagnetic Field on the Sciatic Nerve of the Rat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 R. C. Romero-Sierra, S. Halter, and J. A. Tanner Resp( A Theoretical Analysis of Neuronal BiogeneraLed L Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 G. A. Kitzmann, P. W. Droll, and E. J. Iufer Sele A Polarization Changes Induced in the Pyramidal Cell and Other Neural Elements by Externally Applied Safe Fields . . . . 93 1 ' * * d S: Lrson an L. Hause, A. Sances, Jr:, Stai SECTION 5 PERIPHERAL NERVE AND SPINAL CORD STIMULATION Lim The Design of Implantable Peripheral Nerve Stimulators99 . . . H. G. Friedman -7 77W 7-7-Tw- A+oved For Release 2000/08/07 CIA-RDP96-00787ROO0500200005-2 CONTENTS . . . 55 . 57 . . . 59 . . . . 61 . Cs 69 75 81 87 93 CION 99 CONTENTS XiX Electrical stimulation of the Rabbitis Aortic Nerve and the Dog's Carotid Sinus Nerve: A Parameter 101 Study L. Testerman and S. I. Schwartz Muscle Response to Internal Stimulation of the Peroneal Nerve in Paraplegic Patients . . . . . . . 107 . . . . W. G. Yergler and D. R. McNeal Threshold Distributions of Phrenic Nerve Motor Fibers: A Factor in Smooth Electrophrenic Respiration 109 V. D. Minh and K. M. Moser Development of an Implantable Telestimulator ill . . . . . . . . R. H. Pudenz, C. H. Shelden, L. A. Bullara, E. J~ A. Carregal, and E. L. Watkins The Current Status of Dorsal Column Stimulation fpr Relief of Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 . . . . C. N. Shealy Peripheral Nerve Regeneration by Electrical 115 Stimulation . . . M. Asa, H. Friedman, W. Harding, B. Lesin, V. Mooney, E. Otis, R. Pearson, and Y. Maass SECTION 6 SAFETY FACTORS IN BIOELECTRIC IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENTS "What's Important in Safe Medical Electronics Instrumentation" . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 . . . . R. D. Allison Response to Passage of Sin-usoidal Current 121 Through the Body L. A. Geddes, L. E. Baker, P. Cabler, and D. Brittain Selective Differential Electrocardiographic 131 Leads . . . . . . A. S. Khalafalla and 0. H. Schmitt Safety Factors in Bioelectric Impedance Measurements139 . . . . L. H. Montgomery Standardization Committee on Bioelectrical Impedance Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 . . . . S. E. Markovich LimiL Current Density of Safe Tissue Exposure 145 . . . . . . . . 11. P. Schwan ,,rd XX CONTENTS Problems in the Cli .nical Interpretation of the Impedance.Plethysmogram and Rheoencephalogram 147 J. H,, Seipel SECTION 7 ELECTROSLEEP A Qualitative Description of the Electrosleep 153 Experience S. H. Rosenthal Electrosleep, Hypnosis and Auditory Evoked Potentials to Words, a New Psychological Approach . . . 157 G. Chavez-Ibarra, R. Sanchez-Sinencio, and J. Medina-Jimenez Electrosleep: Some Interesting Case Reports 159 . . . o K. S. Staneff Some Psychophysiologic Effects of Electrical Transcranial Stimulation (Electrosleep) . . . . . 163 ,R. E. McKenzie, S. 11. Rosenthal, and J. S. Driessner Electrosleep Enhanced by Intravenous Lidocaine. . . . . . . 169 N. L. Wulfsohn and'E. Gelineau Electronic Noise in Cerebral Electrotherapy 175 0. GrUnner Wireless Electrostimulation of the Brain (ESB). . . . . . . 181 H.-G. Stadelmayr-Ma~iyores SECTION 8 ELECTRO-ANESTHESIA Obstetric Electro-Analgesia . . . . . . . . 189 . . . . . . . o A. Limoge Electro-Anesthesia for Electrical Cardio-Version. . . . . . 195 B. A. Negovskii, M. N. Kuzin, H. M. Liventsev, B. J. Tabak, H. L. Gurvich, V. D. Zhukovskii, M. E. Cherviakov, and K. P. Kaverina Rectangular Electroanesthesia Currents and the Primary Visual Pathways . ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 E. J. Zuperku, A. Sances, Jr., and S. J. Larson CON". Elec E. A Mech~ A, Effc D. N Surg: D Inde CONTENTS Im 147 153 'o . . . 157 159 16 3 169 o 175 . . . 181 . . . 189 195 or CONTENTS Xxi Electro-Anesthesia: By a New Portable Battery Powered Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 E. R. Winkler, D. B. Stratton, M. Rubin, and A. W. Richardson Mechanisms of Electro-Analgesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 A. Limoge Effect of Electroanesthesia Upon Circulating Serotonin . . . 217 D. 11. Reigel, A. Sances, Jr., S. J. Larson, and N. Hoffman Surgical Experiences with Electroanesthesia . . . . . . 219 D~ 11. Reigel, A. Sances, Jr., and S. J~. Larson Index . . . . . . . . o o o . . . . 223 197