174 The JApp*o#"Fft#tyRet"se 2000/08/11 C'A-RDP96-00792RO0040flJAgP,9-6,,rl,,PYh,iogy, Vol. 55, June 1991 Eastern Virginia Medical School Norfolk, VA 23501 PARAPSYCHOLOGY IN THE IBERO AMERICAN WORLD PAST AND PRESENT DEVELOPMENTS By SERGio A. RUEDA ABSTRACT: This review of parapsychology in Spain, Brazil, Argentina, Puert Rico, and Mexico points out that many developments in these countries rare] transcend the language barrier to become better Imown in the international con munity of psi researchers. The review focuses on developments in research an, theory, as well as on parapsychological organizations, journals, and other aspect of the field. Parapsychology in some of the countries is very different from Anglc Saxon parapsychology owing to cultural influences, but it shares with the rest c the world problems in financing research. The aim of this review is to help comix the language and cultural barriers that have limited cross-cultural communicatio of parapsychological activities and findings. Although parapsychology has a long history and tradition i~ some of the Ibero-American' countries, very little is known to th rest of the parapsychological community about the efforts of th lbero-American parapsychologists to establish parapsychology as respected field of science within their wider scientific community. A Alvarado (1989a) has pointed out, this is perhaps due mainly to lay guage-barrier problems. Other reasons, however, may also hav contributed to the isolation and neglect of the Ibero-American r( searchers, among them the idea that third-world science is inferic to that of developed countries (e.g., see Garfield, 1987). In the cas I wish to thank,the Parapsychology Foundation for financial support. I also grat fully acknowledge the cooperation of the following parapsychologists, who provide information about parapsychology in their countries: for Argentina, Naum Kreima: President of the Instituto Argentino de Parapsicologia, his colleague Dora Ivnisk and Alejandro Parra, Editor of the Revista Argentina de Psico4fa Paranormal; for Br zil, The Centro Latino, Americano de Parapsicologfa (CLAP); for Mexico, Carl( Trevifio, President of the Sociedad Mexicana de Parapsicologfa (SOMEPAR); f( Puerto Rico, Carlos S. Alvarado; and for Spain, Sociedad Espahola de Parapsicologf I also thank Anne Carroll, Dorothy Pope, and Nancy Zingrone for editorial assistan, and Carlos S. Alvarado for his extensive suggestions for the improvement of tf. paper. Wellington Zangari also provided useful criticism. Persons desiring to contact research centers and publications that have been me: tioned in this article and are still active may obtain addresses by writing to the autho ' I am using the term lbero-American to designate any ethnic or linguistic group, Iberian and Latin American origin. Approved For Release 2000/08/11 CIA-RDP96-00792ROO0400100006-7 ',r W 0 CD CD CD %_ CD CD Iq CD CD CD X 04 a) 0 9 W a) U 176 The journal of Parapsychology of parapsychology, some may see little value in monitoring publi- cations and research in these countries, perhaps because they doubt that the material produced by such researchers would be of suffi- cient quality to make an important contribution to the field (Alva- rado, 1989a). This lack of attention to information about lbero-American parapsychology presents a serious problem for English-speaking parapsychologists, who often receive invitations to attend parapsy- chological conferences in some of these countries where there are groups whose commitment to academic parapsychology is doubtful and whose only purpose in extending their invitations is to legitim- ize local efforts, which are sometimes a dubious mix of parapsychol- ogy, spiritism, ufology, and so on. A better knowledge of parapsy- chology in these communities could facilitate evaluation of the goals of specific groups who identify themselves as parapsychologists. David Hess (1990) has pointed out the following concerning Brazil- ian parapsychology: [Since] anything "international" or "first world" in Brazil means addi- tional status, the participation of PA parapsychologists at Brazilian con- ferences that represent one group could mean legitimating either Cath- olic or Spiritist parapsychology at the expense of the other group. (p. 110) Although it is true that such groups exist, it is important to men- tion that there are also serious groups and researchers who for many years have carried out important work-work that deserves recognition even though the language barrier has hindered its re- ception in the international parapsychological arena. Efforts to bridge this lack of attention and to increase cooperation with Ibero- American researchers will not only help those in the English-speak- ing countries to better understand cultural differences and national styles in research practice, but also help the researchers in the Ibero- American world to improve the quality of their work. Therefore, I have selected the following countries for a general survey of the re- search that has been conducted in parts of Ibero-America: Argen- tina, Brazil, Mexico, Puerto Rico, and Spain. Spain There has never been a serious attempt to organize the history of psychical research in Spain, and information is scarce on early attempts to study psychic phenomena seriously. It was not until the 1920s that the Sociedad Espafiola de Estudios Metapsfquicos was Parapsychology in the Ibero-American World 17'~ created under the presidency of the Count of Gimeno, member ol the Royal Academy of Sciences and Medicine. The Society pub. lished a journal called Rnista de Estudios Metapsiquicos (Ferminde; Briones, 1981b). The research orientation of the Society was t( study spontaneous cases and psychics, such as the famous Joaqufr Argamasilla (expert in dermo-optical perception) whose abilitie: Houdini attempted to expose (Houdini, 1924). Most of the work of this society, however, was lost after thg Spanish Civil War during a period of isolation in which only a fev researchers kept the torch burning. Familiar names from this peri(x are Sdnchez Herrero, the Marquiz of Santa Clara, J. Pahn6sN. nd M Otero y Acevedo, researchers whose independent efforts &ntrib uted to a new generation of investigators such as Ramos Pe4gra Mo lina, Francisco GavilAn Fontanet, and Luis Femdndez Brior15?s. Thi latter group, at the beginning of the 1970s, founded the f0t well organized society to investigate psychic phenomena in Spabg it wa called the Sociedad Espaflola de Parapsicologfa (FernAndez griones 1981b). From its inception, this Society, under the directioKof Ra mos Perera Molina, had as its main goal to promote the Rientifi study of parapsychology. To achieve this goal, the Society c~nbine( C the efforts of experts in experimental design, illusionis h rn~!esy 0j ogy, medicine, and other fields of science and in 1976 esta~shed research center (De Vicente, 1983). To carry out its research projects, the Society has beenQdivide into several research committees that specialize in differ~5t area embracing field studies as well as experimental projects. ''Amon these committees are those concerned with the developmenrof th( oretical models to enhance ESP, Kirlian photography, exp4gment; research, OBEs, and the medical aspects of psi. More rcgntly, new committee was established' to investigate anomalous *enor ena along the lines of the Society for Scientific Explorationo Members of the Society have carried out original resea%ch pr jects in experimental parapsychology as well as research ortspont neous cases. They have also critically evaluated miracle clai%s ma( tio," of c by the Catholic church in Spain, such as the liquefac a blood of Saint Pantale6n Uordin Pefia, 1983). LL One of the most interesting investigations has been conicted members of the research committee headed by FranciscceGavil Fontanet (1976). In this study, the committee investigated &Ienti, 'The goal of the committee is to investigate UFOs, cryptozoology, religious paritions, and other phenomena scientifically. 00 0- 0 0 0 04 4) cc 0 LL > o L_ CL CL < 178' The journal of Parapsychology twin'girls presumed to have been born with psi abilities. The case had received extensive coverage by the media in Spain. According to the reports of the case, one of the twin girls had suffered a burn on her hand while ironing. Her sister, separated from her at the time the burning occurred (16 knis away), developed a similar burn on the same hand. The Society sent a team of researchers to carry out a careful investigation of the case. They conducted a series of experiments to determine the possible existence of psi communica- tion between the sisters. One of the experiments consisted of sepa- rating the two girls into two different buildings and stimulating one of them (the sender) with different sensorial inputs (like perfume) while observing physiological reactions, such as pupillary and patel- lar reflexes, in the other twin (the receiver). Psychological profiles of the twins were also obtained from projective tests. The sessions with the two girls were simultaneously filmed to document the stim- uli as well as the perceptual pattern of the reactions. The results showed simultaneous reactions of the twins'reaction time and visual and olfactory responses. In 1978 the members of the Society conducted another impor- tant study, an international survey of the motivational factors of parapsychological researchers. Headed by Gavildn Fontanet (1978), the main objective of the study was to find out what motivates para- psychologists to investigate psychic phenomena. They surveyed 201 parapsychologists from 18 countries around the world. Among the Parapsychologists were J. B. Rhine, S. Krippner, and C. Tart. Three hundred questionnaires, each having 23 questions, were prepared in five different languageS3 and were mailed to re- searchers throughout the world. Among the interesting findings were that 61% of the respondents were psychologists, psychiatrists, and medical doctors, 45% considered themselves agnostics , 24% got involved in parapsychology while looking for a philosophical answer to the question of the nature of man, 31 % got involved for scientific reasons, 51% believed in a transcendent intelligence, 50% believed in some type of survival after death (of these 10% believed in rein- carnation), and 71% rejected astrology. Another research objective of the Society was the search for a theoretical model to enhance psi abilities. For this purpose the So- ciety created the Committee for the Development of ESP4 headed by Luis Ferndndez Briones. The Committee's purpose was to outline languages were English, French, Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese. 4A group that conducts experimental and theoretical research about ESP. Parapsychology in the Ibero-American World 179 a methodological model for the practical development of ESP. Once the model and the techniques were developed, the Society hoped it would be possible to train subjects to obtain positive results over an extended period of time (Fernindez Briones, 1976), thus confront- ing the replicability problem that characterizes most psi research. Although the Committee has not been successful as yet, the results obtained so far are encouraging. Fernindez Briones summarized the findings in his book entitled Desarrollo de la Percepci6n Extrasen- sarial [The Development of Extrasensory Perception] (1983). Among the techniques used by the Committee to attain this goal are the inducement of altered states of consciousness and the applicq~tion of learning theory principles to ESP performance, such as thodr pro- posed by Charles Tart (1966). Although the results have or@ been suggestive, Fernindez Briones was hopeful enough to enoiasize the need for more research to test the proposed models sufGently. Other research conducted by members of the Society iRcludes investigations of poltergeist cases Uordin Pefia, 1980),5; cor&ptual papers related to the ability of some fish, such as the electricRel and the sturgeon of the Nile, to obtain information about th~?r sur- roundings through electrical communication, which the ~pthorF speculated might be a primitive language of telepathy asanc; Rubio &.Arano Bermejo, 1980a); examination of the igrgkon ol and other animals to develop a model for E100 (Bar- carrier pigeons In dasano Rubio & Arano Bermejo, 1980b); and studies of th% socio- logical and anthropological aspects of psychic surgery Uimdez Vi sedo, 1984). Moreover, other members of the Societ~)have speculated on the pineal gland as a possible somatic organ ior ESI reception (Bardasano Rubio et al., 1981); examined neurojahysiol ogy and its importance for parapsychological research Uimftez V, al correlates8f hyF sedo, 1985); considered the psychophysiologic nosis and its implications for parapsychology (Gon7AIez Ord219851 investigated perception of the laying-on of hands by a selaoriall isolated subject (Prat et al., 1988); proposed three-dim(Tsiom models of RSPK studies, that is, the cases are studied within-& par. psychological, psychological, and psychosociological. context Te Ca! tro, Gonzdlez Ordi, & Berrocal. Muela, 1984); and offered theoret LL al models to explain firewalking (Perera, 1989). C educational area, even though efforts have been Oade t In the include parapsychology in the curriculum of universities iiR Spaii CL Jordin Pefia published a book called Casas Encanurdas, PoUergeists_9mIaunt( Houses, Poltergeists] (1982), in which he presented an overview of cases an~& theori of hauntings. For a review of this book, see Alvarado (1985). 180 TheJournal of Parapsychology these have not been successful as yet. Since its inception, however, members of the Society have been very active in organizing numer- ous educational activities and seminars at different universities. The seminar offered by the president of the Society, Ramos Perera Mo- lina, at the Universidad Aut6noma de Madrid in 1975 drew distin- guished and prominent figures such as Prince Juan Carlos of Spain and his wife and the minister of education. Since 1975, the Society has also published a biannual journal, entitled Psi Comunicaci6n, which includes English abstracts. The journal covers both the activities of the Society and a wide range of topics in parapsychology, some of which have been mentioned. In addition, their journal includes a section for national and interna- tional news on parapsychological activities around the world. Mem- bers of the Society have published several books summarizing its re- search activities. I have already mentioned the books by Ferndndez Briones (1983). Other books include an anthology, entitled La Nueva Parapsicologid: Introducci6n a la Parapsicologia Cientoica [The New Parapsychology: An Introduction to Scientific Parapsychology] ed- ited by Ferndndez Briones (1981a), a valuable introduction to the field, and Mario Capel's La Supervivencia. Despuis de la Muerte: Evi- dencia Espontdnea y Experimental [Survival after Death: Spontaneous and Experimental Evidence] (1981) reviewing some of the research and phenomena related to the issue of survival after death. Although parapsychology has been negligible in Spain until re- cent times, it is important to point out that we are now witnessing a boom in parapsychological activities in that country. Unfortunately, even though the Society seems to be the best organized, and to have the most resources in the lbero-American world, its members have not participated in the broader international parapsychological con- ferences, such as that of the Parapsychological Association, possibly because of the language barrier. In addition, it is unfortunate and disheartening to find that such a large, productive, and well-orga- nized society has no member in the PA. Brazil At the 1990 Parapsychological Association convention, David Hess, who has made several field trips to study Brazilian parapsy- chology, presented a paper in which he described Brazilian para- psychology in the following terms: Brazil does not have a coherent community of academic parapsycholo- gists, and there are few if any people in Brazil who research and 'publish Parapsychology in the Ibero-American World at the standards of the Parapsychological Association. Instead, what called "parapsychology" in Brazil is largely defined by rival groups Catholic and Spiritist (Kardecist) intellectuals. (Hess, 1990) To understand parapsychology in Brazil, we need to be famili, with the cultural milieu from which it has evolved, one that is dor, inated by Afro-Brazilian cults and Catholicism. On the one hant we have the Spiritist tradition that came from France through d teachings of Allan Kardec; Spiritists believe that spiritual progress effected by a series of compulsory reincarnations. They believe th mediumship provides opportunities to communicate with deceast individuals. Moreover, Spiritism is strongly influenced in brazil I the Afro-Brazilian cults such as Umbanda and Candombl.Ederiv( from the African religions brought to Brazil through the sli--e tra( -6 (Bastide, 1971; Giesler, 1985). This spectrum of Spiritist beliefs and Afro-Braziliancireligioi has crept in and mixed in Brazilian society (Hess, 1987), (meating 's 0 variety of belief systems from which Brazilian brands of9araps gar chology have evolved. There are many interesting combn! tions the Kardecist type of Spiritism and all sorts of Brazilian;leligio movements that essentially accept possession, the influence~f spir. of deceased individuals, as well as the belief that divinitimkm pc sess individuals and can effect healing (Parra Alvarez, 198t. On the other hand, there is the Catholic tradition thQhas d veloped a system that uses parapsychology as an ideology w5ih whi, to fight and eventually destroy all the movements the churE~ sees superstition and threats to the established Catholic dogmas (He 1990). This system has been developed mainly through th;F-:work tial and respected "parapsycho gis s one of the most influen I" t Ibero-America, Father Oscar Gonzilez Quevedo, a Spa;ash-bo Jesuit priest living in Brazil. Padre Quevedo (as he is kn~vn) a, Luis Ferreira da Silva cofounded the Latin American C*nter Parapsychology, CLAP, of the Anchieta College of Sdo $~auio M 1970. 4) The Center, which was dosed down in 1982 and reogened 1989 under reduced circumstances, used to offer clinical cqunseli for people suffering from psychological problems relate& to rc es T, gious experiences and practices (e.f., demonic posses i Center still has an impressive library of books on paraps~:holoj which used to be housed in huge facilities that also acconRnodat an experimental and clinical laboratory and a museum obje, 6 One of the biggest parapsychology libraries in Latin Ameri- with approximal 4,000 volumes. 182 The Journal of Parapsychology related to parapsychological phenomena, Spiritism, miracles, and psychic healing. In addition, the Center offers seminars and short courses in parapsychology during the year. The stated goal of the Center listed in a publicity leaflet' is to disseminate scientific parapsychology in order to clarify the miscon- ceptions and superstitions produced by the lack of understanding of psychic phenomena. The content of their publications, however, seems to indicate that the real objective of the Center has been to destroy Spiritism and its belief system because it contradicts the church's teachings. Consequently, the Center has been ruled by a religious ideology. Discussion of Brazilian parapsychology must focus essentially on the work of Quevedo, because his work and publications have been the major source of scientific parapsychology not only for Brazil but also for other Ibero-Arnerican countries since the 1960s. It is nec- essary also to emphasize his publications because they are well re- spected and are considered by many to be representative of the Catholic school in Brazilian parapsychology.' Father Quevedo has published several books on parapsychology, some of which have become best sellers in the Spanish language as well as in Portuguese, reaching a surprising number of editions.' Among his books are a general introduction to parapsychology (1969/1973), a discussion of ESP and other mental phenomena (1964/1974), and another about physical mediumship (1969/1971). He has also authored other polemical books on healing (1976/1977) and possession (1989). According to a well-known Spanish parapsychology journal, Quevedo has offered numerous seminars and courses throughout Ibero-America, often drawing audiences of more than 200,000 peo- ple. He has also appeared in over 200 hours of television. Quevedo's impact, spreading what is his version of parapsychology, has been astonishing in its education of the lay person (Fermindez Briones, Jim6nez Visedo, & Capel, 1975). Unfortunately, however, what could have been one of the most important contributions to scientific parapsychology in Ibero-Amer ica is overshadowed by Quevedo's zealous campaign against Spirit 'A promotional leaflet published by CLAP entitled "0 porque do CLAP." 'For further discussions of Brazilian parapsychology, see Hess (1990) and Play- fair (1975). In Portuguese alone, 90 editions of 30,000 copies each, and more than 20 edi- tions in Spanish and Italian (Parna & Pedroza, 1991). Parapsychology in the Ibero-American World 183 ism, in which he explains Spiritist findings as fraud or psi by living organisms, and his equally strong defense of Catholic beliefs. Not only has Quevedo separated himself from the real goals and objec- tives of the CLAP, but he has also used parapsychology as an ideo- logical weapon in a fight to further his particular conceptual per- spective. As Hess (1987) pointed out: Oscar Gonzdlez Quevedo reinterpreted the parapsychology of the United States and Europe in light of Catholic Church doctrine... to challenge the scientific basis of claims of Spiritism, Umbanda, and the Afro-Brazilian religions. (p. 26) N In fact, to accomplish his goals, Father Quevedo has d4torted parapsychology in his books, seeking most of the time to 8ccom- modate church dogmas. He sometimes goes to the extreme 43 mak- ing subtle changes in the content of classical writings on *apsy- chology so as to support his own views (Martinez Taboas, 19*) and to deny any possible explanation that may be close to the $)iritisi point of view. In doing this, Quevedo has used investigatiq& con- ducted for many years by centers around the world, togetv witf numerous references from classical works, including tho~; con- ducted by the Rhines and others at the Duke Parapsycholow Lab- oratory. As David Hess (1990) has further pointed out: CD 2) Both Spiritists and Catholics will still appropriate PA paraps~tffiologN and the older studies of psychical research for their own pur Th &ork:; like to have the foreigners do the empirical research (the "di7 while they sit back and put it into their own philosophical or thec)logica framework. (p. 110) The system of parapsychology Quevedo developed hatlin en tirely different conceptualization of the field and complete1j_5differ ent goals from those of the parapsychological research 8)ne ii other parts of the world. For Quevedo, parapsychology helg to es tablish a dichotomy between what he considers natural phetomem and the supernatural, or phenomena that cannot be explalied b, any paranormal mechanisms (e.g., the miracles of Lourde&d o various saints). Quevedo divides the causes of parapsychologic2 0 phenomena into three types. The natural ESP abilities, clasified a paranormal, are manifestations of the soul, which was crealad per fect and possessed unlimited psychic abilities but was r*stricte, 0 when the first man sinned. Such abilities, Quevedo says, a OCC2 sionally manifested by people during mental disturbances si$w1i as trance. Another category is those phenomena that are beyoTid suc 184 The journal of Para"chology hunLn abilities, that is, the phenomena are supernatural. According to Quevedo, when a parapsychological explanation cannot account for the manifestation of certain psychic phenomena, the explanation should be left to the theologian. Quevedo also includes another iD- teresting category that for many would not be considered parapsy- chology-what he calls "extraordinary normal phenomena," phe- nomena that can be explained by normal or unusual psychological and physiological processes. For example, Quevedo uses the term Pantomnesia (unlimited unconscious memory) as a mechanism that can explain some types of xenoglossy phenomena. When someone manifests this phenomenon, Quevedo believes it means that the per- son once heard the language and is merely repeating previously learned phrases. Another phenomenon classified under this cate- gory is indirect hyperesthesia. According to Quevedo, all our thoughts have an equivalent physiological reaction and are reflected in our bodies. For example, if I am thinking about something, I produce very subtle physical movements or signals that other per- sons near me can decode unconsciously. The information obtained unconsciously can then be transformed into actual knowledge. Quevedo (1964/1974) uses this concept to explain most of the phe- nomena exhibited by mental mediums. Moreover, according to his system, Quevedo (1969/1973) views the excessive manifestation of psychic phenomena in individuals as a pathological problem that should be treated with psychotherapy. Although he considers such manifestations to be natural, an excess of them denotes pathology. Consequently, the manifestation of ESP abilities should never be encouraged or developed. That sets his tra dition completely apart from the one that seeks to develop psi and to understand conditions that enhance its manifestation. Quevedo's conclusions, however interesting, are not derived from empirical research. Rather, his procedure is to review the writ- ings of different authors, especially those from the classical works, and use the material to develop his own conclusions. In a thorough review of three of Quevedo's books, the Puerto Rican psychologist Alfonso Martinez Taboas (1978) identified numerous contradictions, omissions, distortions of the evidence, and dogmatic statements by Quevedo. Quevedo's book Las Fuerzas Fisicas de la Mente alone had 70 problems of this sort. One example of his exaggerated statements appears on page 289 of his book El Rostro Oculto de la Mente. In this passaze Ouevedo concludes the following about precognition: Very few established facts about Chemistry and Physics and other branches of science have been so well established as precognition in Parapsychology in the Ibero-American World 165 parapsychology.... And the most important thing is that thousands of laboratory experiments have scientifically proved without any doubt that man posseses this ability. (1964/1974, p. 289) Without any empirical evidence to support his theory, Quevedo limits the operative range of precognition to two centuries. He does this to prove that man possesses limited temporal abilities, a conclu- sion supporting the Church dogma that only biblical prophecy is un- limited by time, for it is divine in nature and is the result of God's intervention; that is, it is a miracle. The CLAP also used to publish a magazine called Revista de Parapsicologia, which summarized the activities of the Center and contained mostly theoretical articles. More recently, howell~r, the Center closed down, apparently because of a prohibition if8posed by the Church as a result of a polemical book published by (Sevede (1989) entitled Antes Que Os Dem6nios Voltem [Before the Dem5is Re turn]. In this book Quevedo, ironically, uses parapsychc&gy te make skeptical commentaries on Catholic dogmas concerrog de ion; he also tries to explain demonic po monic possess p0 ssior through parapsychological mechanisms. He criticizes the tr *tiona Church use of the Rituale Romanum in determining the cj%ses o4 demonic possession. Essentially, Quevedo points out the! sh8rtcom ings of the Rituale Romanum, which does not include psycW phe nomena as an alternative explanation that might account '0-- mos Wr of the cases of demonic possession. There is no doubt that in developing his system QueNWo ha extensively surveyed the whole field of parapsychology. In reviei of some of his books, George Zorab (1971) states: These three volumes, comprising nearly 1000 pages, fully i reader about all the various aspects of modern parapsycholoT§rm th ~. It is ~ the same time a fair and reliable guide. in a sense it is uniq* in tl present day literature of the subject, for since Richet's TraW 6RWtaps chique (1922) and F. Moser's Okkultismus (1935) no such compaehensi,~ work covering the whole extensive field of modern parapsychgogy h: been put on the market. (p. 142) 2 I certainly would agree with Zorab's opinion on the as&shir amount of work carried out by Quevedo, work that certEnly d serves recognition. I would not, however, characterize hisowork fair and reliable as far as the handling of the evidence is c4cerne To a certain extent, Quevedo's position is justified when 112 tries fight superstition such as that spread by the psychic healersc& ho, a very popular in Brazil. In a sense he is a minority in a sogety wi 186 The journal of Parapsychology a high concentration of Spiritists whose beliefs threaten the estab- lished Catholic dogmas. However, when he uses parapsychological evidence of certain phenomena as a scientific backup to establish facts, when this same evidence is still very controversial for many parapsychologists, his position is untenable. Nonetheless, his work has to be seen in the cultural and ideological background from which he has worked (Alvarado, 1991). Another dimension of Brazilian psychical research is the work by researchers with Spiritist orientation. One example is that con- ducted by the engineer and psychical researcher Hernani Guimar- des Andrade, who in 1963 founded the Brazilian Institute of Psy- chobiophysical Research (IBPP). The name was chosen to make it clear that the Institute intended to explore biological and physical as well as purely psychical phenomena. One of the most significant things about this Institute is that it emerged from within the Spiritist movement (Playfair, 1975). Andrade, a Spiritist himself, has con- ducted well-planned and detailed investigations of reincarnation cases along the lines of Ian Stevenson's work, His poltergeist cases are particularly interesting-for example, the one published in a monograph entitled 0 Poltergeist de Guarulhos (1984). These cases in- volve very dramatic phenomena: apports, damage to furniture and persons, apparitions of strange creatures, and spontaneous fires. In evaluating and interpreting the cases, Andrade leans toward the dis- carnate agencies hypothesis, sometimes with possible witchcraft com- ponents (Alvarado, 1984b; Andrade, 1984). Also, as Michel-Ange Amorim (1990) has remarked about Andrade's interpretation of the cases: Andrade interprets the different types of occurrences present in this case [the Guarulhos's case] as supportive of a Spiritist world view in the Umbanda tradition. The Umbanda tradition has several million adher- ents especially in the bigger cities. It combines African, Catholic, Indian, and Spiritist elements and may be characterized as a relatively extra- ecclesiastic of popular Catholicism with ancient Afro-Brazilian sects. (p. 199) According to Amorim, not only does Andrade interpret his cases along the Spiritist lines but he also accepts the central beliefs of this religion, such as the existence of all sorts of spirits, like Exus and Umulums. He also believes that the sorcerer is able to practice magic within the terreiros (a place specialized in these procedures) to harass victims according to Quimbanda laws (the black magic side of the Umbanda religion). Concerning Andrade's interpretation of the aforementioned case of Guarulhos, Amorim (1990) also states: Parapsychology in the Ibero-American World 18' Thus, he rejects the usual attributions of RSPK outbreaks to a livin agency. In defense of his position he points to the fact that a Psych( logical examination of Noi~rnia [a participant in the case], the most prot able RSPK agent, was conducted by two psychologists belonging to th IBPP team. He states, "Mrs. Noq~mia didn't display any form of psych cal abnormality that could justify viewing her as belonging to the 'psi chokinetic agent of a poltergeist' category in conformity with the thec retical patterns suggested by the current hypothesis.". . . He adds thi his macro-PK tests ... of her capacities were also negative. (p. 199) It is important, however, to point out that to some extent tb cases investigated by Andrade and his associates seem to reflect th influence of the beliefs and culture of Brazilian society.(Hels. 1990 Andrade has also published one of the first systematic trSKises parapsychology in Portuguese entitled Parapsicologia Exj*iment( (1967). A basic introductory manual of the quantitative me o used in parapsychology, it includes a detailed description 4he st; tistical model used in experiments with ESP cards. 0 There are other groups in Brazil who are intereste 0 011 MOT S e of these is tb scientific approach to psychical research. One of these S recen nvestiga~6e ntifici tly established ECLIPSY-Instituto de Investiga~6e r em Parapsicologia. This group aims to pursue a different roacl one separate from the more traditional approaches associ2ed wit Spiritist or Catholic orientations typical of most Brazilian Mesearc centers. It received support from the University of Sdo Fragisco 1 organize its first conference in parapsychology, held in 199Q, whk included participants from the University as well as re5arche, from Argentina, Brazil, and Mexico. The group plans to'condu( T_ experimental research that will be reported in its newjourrmi, calle Revista Brasileira de Parapsicologia. According to its presid&, We lington Zangari, it will include abstracts in English as Nal as Spanish. The journal will also include translations from r9jor e) EnZish-lai perimental and theoretical articles published in the to guage journals. M There are also other groups involved in parapsychology-sh Bra7 . 4). that are beyond the scope of this paper because of linutWons space and because of our initial goal of evaluating Brazili~ri pan psychology from the perspective of its impact on the Iber16-Amer can countries. 4) 0 Argentina CL CL < For many years Argentina has been the top-ranking country Ibero-America in terms of experimental parapsychological research 188 The journal of Parapsychology However, research has diminished in the last few years, partly be- cause of the recent deaths of two of the leading contributors, J. Ri- cardo Musso and Enrique Novillo Pauli. Early research began in Argentina about the same time the Duke University Laboratory was established in the United States. The 1930s witnessed one of the most important events in the history of Argentine parapsychology. In 1931, the first institute of psychology was established at the University of Buenos Aires. The institute in- cluded paranormal psychology as one of the areas to be investigated by the department. Parapsychology appeared to be joined to psy- chology from the beginning. The chairman of the psychology de- partment, Enrique Mouchet, was interested in clairvoyance research and had come to the conclusion that it was necessary to include paranormal psychology in the syllabus of courses offered by the de- partment (Musso, 1973). However, Argentinian researchers have had to struggle with the traditional spiritualistic methodology that characterized the study of psychical research in this country in the past. The research being conducted in the young Duke Parapsychology Laboratory had a ma- jor impact on the new generation of Argentinian researchers. The move toward a more quantitative approach to the study of scientific parapsychology was pioneered by a young engineer by the name of Jos6 Ferndndez, who was teaching physics at the University of Bue- nos Aires. Although Ferndndez belonged to a Spiritualist group called ATMAN, he had been in search of an adequate methodology to investigate the psychic phenomena manifested by mediums and clairvoyants. He hoped to be able to apply statistical principles to the responses given by the mediums. Ferndndez presented the results of these experiments in 1941 to a meeting of the Sociedad Cientifica Argentina. Ferndndez's efforts to introduce quantitative methodol- ogy in Argentina had a major impact on the approaches that other young researchers were to follow in establishing scientific parapsy- chology there. Another development during this period was the creation of the Asociaci6n Argentina M6dica de Metapsiquica in 1946 by a group of physicians headed by Orlando Canavesio. The aim of this society was to evaluate the medical and legal status of parapsychology sci- . entifically and to promote its development in scientific circles as well as to determine its proper classification, that is, to decide whether the discipline belonged to psychology or physiology, or whether it could be considered to be a new branch of science. Canavesio himself wrote his doctoral thesis on a study of elec- troencephalographic records of gifted subjects. This society pub- Parapsychology in the Ibero-American World lished a journal called Revista Midica de Metapsiquica summarizin the research of the society. Included among the articles publishe in the journal was a study of the use of dowsers by the governmet to find water in towns where the lack of water had become a harc ship for its inhabitants. During this period, the work of Canavesi was important because of his connection to the government, a cor nection that helped to legitimize parapsychological studies in Arger tina (Musso, 1973). The creation of the Instituto de Psicopatologia. Aplicada in 194 by the Secretary of Public Health was another important develof ment. The aim of the government was to establish tight corhol ove the Spiritist activities in Argentina, which were considere&o be social evil. More specifically, the aim was to control the exF%-)itatio of people engaged in nonscientific practices such as healin and s on. The Institute created a subsidiary, the Comit6 de Inves ciont Metapsiquicas, which was assigned to conduct expei itsearc with gifted subjects, specifically during mediumistic sessigs. Th Committee intended to explore the medical and legal imb%cation of Spiritist practices, as well as to determine whether germige pari: psychological phenomena were exhibited during these sean"ons b the gifted subjects. The Committee was also interested in 0' wicovei ing negative factors that might induce mental illness, sucb&s neu rosis, in the participants. More specifically, it seems that thqeal ol: jective of the Committee was to determine whether the pornotei of these mediumistic sessions were practicing medicine illegal] (Parra, 1989). In 1949 Jos6 Fernindez founded the Sociedad Arge&na d Parapsicologia. Ferndndez, who was already known for hi_'__1_luanf tative approach to psychic phenomena, continued to prorcote th statistical approach used by the Duke researche 04 rs. This abproac. was reflected in the Society's main objective, which was to stry an( investigate parapsychological phenomena with emphasis orp9he dc velopment of statistical methods. By then Ferndndez had kceive~ from Rhine a copy of Extra-Sensoiy Perception After Sixty Yea78 (Prat, Rhine, Smith, Stuart, & Greenwood, 1940). The book hadLu majo impact on Ferndndez, who applied Rhine's mathematical ni~dels u his own research. Fernindez also circulated the book amang h1i friends (Musso, 1973). The Society conducted the first serious experimen CL ts on &airvo) ance in Argentina using ESP cards and statistical procedures. Th study, with gifted subjects, obtained significant results. FernAnde presented the results of these experiments in a pamphlet entitle( 190 The Journal of Parapsychology Psicologia Experimental. The Society also conducted other experi- ments such as the one with the well-known clairvoyant Conrado Cas- tiglione. The study used the empty-chair technique similar to that used with Ludwig Khan and with Gerard Croiset (Musso, 1973). The first Instituto Argentino de Parapsicologfa was established in 1953. It brought together several men who represented the most critical approach of the time, men such as Jos6 Ferndndez, Orlando Canavesio, J. Ricardo Musso, and Naum Kreiman. The Institute was organized to include a main scientific research department, along with several sections, such as the medical-biological section and a physics and mathematics section. The principles of the Institute re- flected the critical approach their members followed in conducting their research. One of these was to subject every hypothesis to sci- entific examination, so that only those that would withstand the most stringent tests would remain. In addition to the creation of the Institute, this period of the 1950s was also characterized by a grow- ing interest in publishing books on parapsychology. One of the first systematic treatises on parapsychology in Spanish written by J. Ri- cardo Musso (1954) was called En los Limites de la Psicologia: Desde el Espiritismo hasta la Parapsicologia [On the Limits of Psychology: From Spiritualism to Parapsychology]. Other developments included a pa- per by Musso in 1957, which was published in a journal put out by the ministry of education of the province of Buenos Aires. It was the first time a paper on parapsychology had been published in a government review. In addition, parapsychology was incorporated as a course in five different universities. In 1960, Ricardo Musso was awarded a professorship at Rosario University to teach parapsychol- ogy, and, for the first time in any country, a course in parapsycho- logy was made a requirement for a doctoral degree in psychology (Rueda, 1989). In 1962 the Institute conducted studies confirming the sheep- goat effect, using primary-school children as subjects. The results were published in the journal of Parapsychology (Musso, 1965). Other important experiments included "An ESP Drawing Experiment with a High Scoring Subject," also published in the journal of Parapsychol- ogy (Musso & Granero, 1973). Moreover, Musso and his wife and colleague, Mirta Granero, conducted an international experiment on long-distance ESP called the "Antarctic Experiment." Although the results were not statistically significant they were important be- cause the experiment involved subjects from twenty different coun- tries (Musso, 1973, p. 168). The expansion period of parapsychology was interrupted in 1966 when the then current Argentinian government was over- Parapsychology in the Ibero-American Torld 19 thrown by a military coup; most state universities were forced t( eliminate the study from their curricula. In spite of the prevailinj negative conditions standing in the way of university status for th, subject, a new quarterly publication was founded. The Cuad6mos d Parapsicologia, perhaps the most important publication in the histor, of Argentinian experimental parapsychology, took the responsibilit, of disseminating a high level of academic parapsychology. Heade( by Naum Kreiman, it has been the most professional organ of sci entific parapsychology in Argentina to the present time. Owing to the military takeover of the government thiq elimi nated most of the parapsychology courses offered at the stbte un] versities, parapsychology did not enjoy the same status at A begin ning of the 1970s as it had during the period of un?yersit expansion of the 1960s. Some new developments during thGperio( kept the torch lit, however. Among the most important onesWas th, creation of the Instituto de Parapsicologia in 1970. It is he9ded b Naum Kreiman, a bio-statistician and a co-founder of the 21stitut, Argentino de Parapsicologia in the 1950s. Kreiman has play~p a ke, role in the development of the quantitative approach to tt stud, of parapsychology for the last 30 years. From 1964 to thlresen he has conducted numerous original experiments as well repli cations of some of the most important experiments condlkted ii foreign countries. With the help of his wife and collaboratat, Don Ivnisky, and Ladislao Mdrquez, he has conducted nurnerougexper iments that have been published in the Cuadernos. Among t4m ar( exploratory testing with ESP cards (Kreiman & Ivnisky, 19~4); ESI using photographs as targets (Kreiman, 1965); the sheep '-' f f -gogj e ec in ESP (Kreiman, 1972); the effect of feedback on ESP (Kronan 8 Ivnisky, 1973); ESP and memory (Kreiman, 1975); mem&y an( precognition (Kreiman, 1978); psi and volition (Kreiman &Cvnisky 1980); brain laterality and ESP (Kreiman, 1981); precogn on o 91 . human actions (Ivnisky & Kreiman, 1981); and remote giewin~ (Kreiman, 1983). Institute members such as Dora Ivnisky have done Aensiv( work in keeping the Argentinian parapsychological wnimuCity in 'numeLL formed of activities around the world by translating r8us ex periments and theoretical papers from languages other thav, Span ish from the journal of Parapsychology and elsewhere. The Jiligen experimental work done by Kreiman since the 1950s and cor&muin~ to the present time makes him one of the most important labAraton researchers in Argentinian and lbero-American parapsychology. Another important development during this period was the cre. ation of an Institute of Parapsychology at the Catholic University o~ 192 The journal of Parapsychology C6rdoba by the Catholic priest Enrique Novillo Pauli. One of the principal activities of the Institute was to teach courses on parapsy- chology in the school of psychology at the University. The staff of the Institute also provided consultation and orientation to bishops, priests, and families about phenomena such as poltergeists and bleeding religious images. Unfortunately this institute recently closed down after the death of Father Novillo. Prior to the creation of the Institute, Novillo Pauli had been at the Foundation for Research on the Nature of Man in North Car- olina where he conducted some PK research with seeds as targets under the auspices of the Organization of American States. Novillo Pauli presented the results of his experiments at the annual conven- tion of the Parapsychological Association in 1972 (Novillo Pauli, 1973). During the period of his stay at the FRNM, he also prepared a book on parapsychology entitled Los Fen6menos Parapsicol6gicos: Psi en el Laboratorio (1975), which included reports of his PK studies. The studies were also reported in the Spanish-language parapsycho- logical journals Cuadernos de Parapsicologia (1974) and Psi Comunica- ci6n (1976). In spite of the marked decline since the 1970s, an important re- cent development is the organization of a parapsychology confer ence in Argentina in 1987, the Primer Encuentro de Parapsicologfa. It was sponsored by the University of Salvador of Buenos Aires and held under the direction of Enrique Novillo Pauli. Some of the top ics discussed at the conference were mental healing studies, altered states of consciousness in relation to psi performance, and quantum mechanics (Alvarado, 1989b). Soon afterward, Argentina suffered the loss of two of its most important pioneers, J. Ricardo Musso, president of the Instituto Argentino de Parapsicologia (which he di- rected until his death in 1989) and, in the same year, Enrique Novi- Ilo Pauli. Consequently, the activities of Musso's institute declined, and the institute at the University of El Salvador headed by Enrique Novillo Pauli closed down. Since then, the Institute of Parapsychol- ogy headed by Kreiman has remained as the most important source of professional parapsychology in Argentina. During the 1980s, parapsychology in Argentina was character- ized by a marked decline in experimental activities. Most of the work during this period was conducted by members of the Institute of Parapsychology under Kreiman, who, as in previous years, main- tained a constant interest in reporting original experiments, includ- ing replications of foreign experimental works. They also continued to publish regularly their quarterly journal, which contained trans- lations of some of the most important research published in English. Parapsychology in the Ibero-American World 193 Recently, a new parapsychology journal, the Revista Argentina de Psicologia Paranormal, has appeared. It is published by an indepen- dent group of parapsychologists called LAPAS (Laboratory of Para- psychology) and edited mainly by Alejandro Parra. judged by its content, the journal seems to be a worthwhile addition to the cur- rent efforts to keep the Argentinian audience well informed on professional parapsychology. However, some of the experiments of the researchers in this group have not been well received by other Argentinian researchers, who consider the experiments to be flawed (Kreiman, 1990; see also Alvarado, 1990). LAPAS has also started a Spanish-language parapsychology information center. The Oqnter is building a computer data bank from which Spanish-speakirfg para- psychologists may obtain information about a bibliography (~ para- psychology similar to the Parapsychology International Abstr4 pub- lished by Rhea White (Villanueva, 1990). In addition to these recent developments, CSICOP has igide its way to Argentina. A former member of Naum Kreiman's 4g;earch group, Ladislao Mdrquez, has created an Argentinian versi called Centro Argentino Para la Investigaci6n y Refutaci6n ddee l1aa eudo- ciencia (CAIRP). The most important aims of CAI P areoto de- s Ssme 0 f the nounce fraud and to promote a critical scientific ass 10 claims made by pseudoscientists. The board of directors, heKded by Ladislao Mdrquez, also includes foreign members, Martin Cfldner. for instance. The prospects for Argentinian parapsychology in thZ5 1 s seem less favorable than those of the booming period of previous years. The present difficulties in the Argentinian economy Pve in W creased for researchers, making it difficult for them to obtA- fundE to support their research and publications. sent status of l9rapsy- In a recent survey conducted on the pre chology in Argentina, Naum Kreiman reported that resea%h ha., decreased substantially over the last five years. Most of thmOrecen, research reports have come from Kreiman's Institute of 4-rapsy chology. Educational activities in the field are almost nil e4pt fol a course being offered at a small university called John F. Ytcnned~ LL University (Kreiman & Ivnisky, 1989). 0 In a letter published in the journal of Parapsychology, Jorg Villa nueva (1990) pointed out some of the major problems thaOikrgen tinian researchers face at the present time. Among them arc~ack o t book support from public and private institutions, lack of serio, in Spanish to provide responsible information on the subject, an( lack of proper technology and other means to conduct sophisticate( research. Some of these problems, Villanueva suggests, may be d, 194 The journal of Parapsychology minished by increasing communication and collaboration with for- eign parapsychologists. Puerto Rico" Early psychical research in Puerto Rico was strongly influenced by the nineteenth-century Spiritualist movement that had also spread to other countries. Mediumistic s6ances in which raps and communication with the spirits were common drew attention mostly from people with a religious interest. It was perhaps this influence that led Agapito Morales to publish in 1904 a more critical examination of these phenomena. In his booklet Breve Tratado de Hipnotismo, Magnetismo, Espiritismo y suges- toterapia, Morales contended that all those occurrences could take place without assuming the action of spirit agencies. He interpreted possession as being autosuggestion and attributed paranormal phe- nomena to our own psychic faculties. He considered that all of the experiments made until today demonstrate that there is an invisible force in our being that is capable, for instance, of playing a guitar, lifting a table, or lifting our own bodies. According to him this force is under our control. He also believed that mediumistic communi- cation could be explained by means of telepathy between the me- dium and the sitter. Another major influence in the formation of a more empirical and critical approach to parapsychology was the work of Francisco Ponte, a dentist who became president of the Puerto Rican Feder- ation of Spiritists. Ponte visited Europe in 1912 to familiarize him- self with the work of several Spiritualistic centers, as well as psychi- cal research centers. He had had the opportunity to participate in mediumistic s6ances in Italy with famous mediums such as Lucia Sordi and Eusapia Palladino. During these s6ances he witnessed manifestations of apparent telekinesis and materializations (Alva- rado, 1987; Ponte, 1914). Later Ponte returned to Puerto Rico and tried to reproduce the same phenomena with local mediums. He reported some of his find- ings on materializations of body parts during s6ances to Walter Franklin Prince, then Research Officer of the ASPR. Ponte's work was important because of the critical and empirical approach he brought to his research on s6ance phenomena (Alvarado, 1979a). 'OThis section on Puerto Rican parapsychology partly summarizes information contained in an article by Alvarado (1979a). Parapsychology in the Ibero-American World 195 The theoretical ideas of Ralph U. Sierra are also interesting. Sierra, who was interested in the psychology of ESP, believed that to develop telepathy it was necessary to develop first an internal state of tranquility so that the electrical activity of the brain did not interfere with the telepathic process (Sierra, 1966). Some of the most important developments, however, took place during the last two centuries. At the educational level, it is impor tant to note the work of Celinda Madera who, during the 1970s, offered a series of courses and lectures at different campuses of the University of Puerto Rico. Madera's courses focused on the human istic and transpersonal aspects of psi. She herself had received train in at Duke University's Parapsychology Laboratory (Alv ado, 9 1979a). In 1974, Nestor A. Rodriguez Escudero, a lawyer, publi&ed a series of essays about parapsychology and Spiritualism in higbook Los Caminos de Dios. He discussed a great variety of paranorm;g phe- nomena. His main objective was to show that parapsychologSdem- onstrates the spiritual aspect of man (Rodriguez Escudero, Ig!4). Another development in 1977 was the creation of the IrFatituto de Investigaciones Psicofisicas at the University of Puerto Ric a) ay- agilez campus. Founded to conduct investigations in parapsy . logy and related areas, the Institute carried out studies of various f*ram- eters of Kirlian photography and of the effects of hypnosis I ESP. However, these research investigations were never made avfflable for publication. During this period Alfonso Martinez Taboasc~egan to publish a newsletter Explorando lo Paranormal, a semipopulZmag- azine later edited by Carlos Alvarado starting in 1976. Martinez Taboas and Carlos Alvarado wrote articles on parapsy chology in Spanish for the Spanish journal Psi Comunicacil they also published in other journals. Their articles covered a w d ange of topics. Among these, Alvarado wrote on experimental st 'es of OBEs (1976), historical precedents of the so-called psychic discov eries behind the Iron Curtain (1978), the use of historical Rnowl edge (I 979b), and on J. B. Rhine (1980). Martinez Taboas puehished a review of the problem of repeatability in parapsychology 0 979), critiques of psychological and physiological concepts of poltrgeist research (1977, 1980, 1984; Martinez Taboas & Alvarado,L4981), 'a and a discussion of the concept of parsimony applied to p4rapsy- chology (1983). 0 The work of Martinez Taboas and Alvarado has been vemy im- CL portant in the effort to bridge the language barrier betwQ!fn the Spanish researcher and the non-Spanish-speaking researcher. This 196 The journal of Parapsychology is particularly true of Alvarado's book reviews (1984a, 1985) and his discussion of language-barrier problems in parapsychology (1989a). Moreover, Alvarado, a former research assistant at the Division of Parapsychology (now the Division of Personality Studies) at the Uni- versity of Virginia, has maintained a constant flow of information on parapsychological activities in Latin America to research centers in the United States for the last eight years. In addition, among the Ibero-American parapsychologists, he is the one who has published most extensively in the English-language journals and the only one ever to be elected a member of the Board of Directors of the Para- psychological Association. Mexico Mexico has been known for a long time as the land of the sacred mushroom or peyotl, a plant used by the Indian shaman to induce an altered state of consciousness, which allegedly facilitates the man- ifestation of psychic powers. This country has also been a major source for many parapsychological researchers interested in unor- thodox psychic healing practices. Famous curanderas (healers) such as Maria Sabina and Dofia Pachita have been extensively investi- gated by Stanley Krippner and other famous parapsychologists (Krippner & Villoldo, 1986). Although Mexico has been a major source of study for many parapsychologists from foreign countries, psychical research has not flourished there as it has in other countries such as Argentina and Spain. Moreover, even though the country is located on the south- ern border of the United States and has been subject to very strong American cultural influence in almost every aspect of life, the dom- inance of the United States has not been a factor in the develop- ment of parapsychology. Even though in the United States there are more parapsychological research centers than anywhere else in the world, very little is known in Mexico of their research. Most of what is known about serious parapsychology comes from Latin American countries such as Brazil. For example, the writings of Quevedo are well known in Mexico, and also most of what is known generally comes from popular magazines. Early efforts to study psychical research within a scientific frame- work in Mexico began in 1919 with the isolated efforts of such re- searchers as the German-born medical doctor Gustav Pagenstecher, the first researcher to conduct serious psychical research in Mexico. Pagenstecher was a very well-known and respected physician in the Parapsychology in the Ibero-American World 197 Mexican medical community as well as in political circles. In the course of his career he delivered speeches before two presidents of Mexico, Diaz and Obreg6n (Allison, 1943)." A respected member of the medical profession, Pagenstecher said he had been a materialist for forty years when he had his first encounter with the paranormal. It was during a hypnosis treatment of one of his patients who had insomnia that he discovered the re markable psychical gifts of Maria Reyes de Zierold. Pagenstecher be gan a series of psychometric experiments with her in 1919. The re sults were so striking that he brought them to the attention of the Mexican medical society, which appointed a commission t%-verify them. Pagenstecher also decided to write to the ASPR ang send some of the results he had obtained. The results induced aValter Franklin Prince, Research Officer of the ASPR, to go to MdRico to Ir investigate the case. After a series of experimental sittings wi~ Zier- old, Prince was so impressed with the results that he decided a pub- lish them in the journal of the ASPR in 1920 (Pagenstecher0920). Prince later published another paper in which he discussed Mie ex- periments in which he participated (Prince, 1921b). MoreofMr, the ASPR published a monograph by Pagenstecher entitled PasSEvents Seership: A Study of Psychometry (Pagenstecher, 1922). (b According to William Roll (1967), Pagenstecher contribited to two major areas in parapsychology: < [He was], as far as I know the first investigator to use hypn"s as a means to cultivate ESP in a gifted subject .... Pagenstecher's stuJI's were also, I believe, the first to indicate that the (parapsychological)'Mssocia- T_ tion of objects may be governed by the same laws that govern gr (psy- chological) association of ideas. (p. 238) Pagenstecher showed great courage in undertaking theseaxper- iments. He jeopardized his professional standing as well as hi& med- ical practice by trying to substantiate the claims for Zierold's Psychic abilities. The Medical Commission appointed to investigate le casc was skeptical of the reported phenomena. Fortunately, howeakr, tht Commission's leading experts obtained successful results in bie ex- periments in which they participated (Gomezharper cle -1%evifio, 1990). 0 Obreg6n was a revolutionary military leader, later President of MexictwalteT Franklin Prince (1921a) relates an interesting psychic experience witnessedl-by Ob- reg6n, about a precognitive dream Obreg6n's brother had about the deaAf theii mother. 198 The journal of Parapsychology Another development in parapsychological activities in Mexico occurred in 1937. A team of medical doctors, headed by Dr. En- rique Arag6n, formed a special commission to investigate an alleged- case of poltergeist activity surrounding a thirteen-year-old Mexican boy named Joaquin Velizquez Villavicencio. As part of the investi- gation, the team tried to measure the level of RSPK energy, using a special apparatus called a sthenometer designed by the French psychical researcher Paul Joire to detect PK forces (Gomezharper de Trevifio, 1990). Arag6n's contributions were important to parapsy- chology in Mexico because of his prestigious position and his aca- demic attainments. Arag6n was at one time president of the Uni- versity of Mexico and was also founder and Director of the Instituto de Psiquiatria y Psicologia there. He conducted field research on haunting cases, precognitive dreams, and fraud in Spiritism. In 1939, Arag6n founded the Circulo de Investigaciones Meta siquicas cle M46xico.1' The aim of the Institute was to conduct a p scientific investigation of a case of alleged materialization produced by the most famous medium in the history of Mexico, Luis Marti- nez. The medium started his activity when he was six years old and allegedly could produce incredible phenomena, such as lights, ap- ports, direct writing, direct voices, levitations of objects, and so forth. The attention drawn by the case led to the participation of medical and political men in the sessions. Two ex-presidents of Mexico were said to have participated in the s6ances (Garofano, 1988). Other work worth mentioning is that conducted by the Jesuit priest and psychical researcher Carlos Maria Heredia. He recorded several observations and experiments in which odors (or other stim- uli) associated with forgotten experiences were presented to the sub- ject, theoretically causing an imbalance in the subject's subconscious memories associated with the odor which~ in turn, induced a tele- pathic transmission of the forgotten experience to a nearby perci- pient (Heredia, 1931/1945). For Heredia, telepathy and spontaneous case occurrences were fairly acceptable; however, phenomena of the s6ance room were to him anathema. Having developed some skills as an illusionist, he used to tour the country demonstrating mediumistic: manifestations, 12 This research group later changed its name to Instituto Mexicano de Investi- gaciones Slquicas, which also published a detailed account of the s6ances with the medium Luis Martinez which lasted for over ten years. The publication was called Una Ventana al Mundo Invisible [A Window to an Invisible world] (Instituto Mexicano de Investigaciones Siquicas, 1960). Another interesting dimension of this case is the participation in the s4~ances of two well-known Mexican psychical researchers, Gustav Pagenstecher and Carlos Maria Heredia. Parapsychology in the Ibero-American World 19S as he supposed, by his methods of nonspiritual conjuring. He wrotf a book along these lines debunking the mediumistic phenomenz claimed by Spiritists; it was called Los Fraudes Espirih~stas y los Fen6- menos Metapsiquicos (1931/1945). Unfortunately these efforts to or- ganize serious centers and societies to study psychic phenomenz from a more empirical approach never led to a more formal typ( of organization; most of these centers and investigations were short- lived. Since the 1930s, very little is known of any other serious effort, to introduce scientific parapsychology to Mexico. After 1940, as I mentioned at the beginning of this section of the paper, tite besi known studies have been conducted by anthropologists ar~ para. psychologists interested in nonorthodox practices of healing8partio 0 ularly those of the shamanistic variety. Ir- Among the healers was the famous Oaxacan shaman, garbar~ Guerrero, best known as "Pachita," who practiced as a psydaic sur. geon and who in the 1960s became the subject of enormoig atten- tion. Pachita was studied by Krippner and Villoldo (1986) Ad oth- ers. Another healer, perhaps the best known of all, waTMark Sabina, who drew worldwide attention because of her use (g hallu- cinogenic mushrooms in her unusual healing practices. (b It was not until 1974 that the first Mexican parapsycholokcal so- ciety was created, the Sociedad Mexicana de Parapsicologia,~eadec by Carlos Trevifio, a psychiatrist and an Associate Memberi of th( Parapsychological Association. The Society at the present ';:~ tiae rep. resents the most critical approach to parapsychology in Mexico. L trains researchers and provides education both to the Church an, to lay persons concerning alleged cases of demonic- possession anc other manifestations of psychic phenomena. The Society al 0 offer! $8 courses in parapsychology to the general public in an attgnpt t( correct misconceptions about the nature of scientific paratychol- ogy. For example, in Mexico the common belief is that paralpychol- ogy is a mixture of magic, demonology, and sorcery. A Mrapsy- chologist is thought to be a person who reads Tarot ca s. anc ~ coffee grounds and prepares horoscopes. Under these carcum. 0 - stances an average Mexican tends to dismiss such beliefs, Lilarticu. larly since they are deeply rooted in their tradition and cultdgal her itage (Gomezharper de Trevifio, 1990). > Along with courses for the general public, the Mexicanlociet, is the only organization that offers an officially required cogse fo~ candidates to the priesthood studying at the Instituto de la-Arque di6cesis de Mi6xico. Members of the Society have also conducted ex 0 V_ 0 0 W 04 01) 0 c6 a) (L 200 The journal of Parapsychology perimental research with Kirlian photography (Trevifio, 1975) and field investigations of haunting cases and poltergeists. Some parapsychological conferences have been organized in Mexico-for instance, the Congreso Internacional de Parapsicologia held in 1984 in Mexico City. The Society also organized the Primer Simposio de Parapsicologfa Cientifica held in 1984. At this meeting a number of PA members presented papers, among them Marilyn Schlitz and Stanley Krippner (Gomezbarper de Trevifio, 1990). Another conference worth noting is the one organized by the newly created Sociedad Mexicana para la Investigaci6n Esc6ptica. The first Latin American skeptics' conference was cosponsored by CSICOP and convened in Mexico City in 1989. The conference in- cluded speakers such as Ray Hyman and James Alcock, as well as several psychologists from the University of Mexico. The new Mex- ican society of skeptics headed by Mario M6-ndez has launched a journal called El Investigador Esciptico, which will be made available throughout Latin America for Spanish-speaking readers. An example of the attention to parapsychology given by high- ranking political figures in Mexico was the visit of the wife of the former president of Mexico, Carmen L6pez Portillo, who visited the Institute for Parapsychology in North Carolina to participate in some testing demonstrations of ESP. It is also interesting to note that the president's sister, Margarita L6pez Portillo, prepared a video about the life of the famous Mexican healer "Pachita." There are also some isolated researchers in Mexico such as Jacobo Grin- berg who in 1977 conducted research in dernio-optic perception. It is unfortunate that one can find no serious parapsychological publications in Mexico at the present time. There are only some popular magazines on the topic, such as Duda [Doubt]." Conclusion So far, I have surveyed the past and present positions of para- psychology in several Ibero-American countries. But what does this conglomeration of names, societies, and research centers mean? First of all, as I have pointed out, my purpose was to familiarize the English-speaking parapsychologists with the work of their colleagues from other countries, especially those researchers who have been in "Duda is a magazine that is widely published nationally. it includes sensational articles on mixed topics such as UFOs, ESP phenomena, crYptozoology, and so on. Parapsychology in the Ibero-American worta the field of parapsychology for many years but whose work and publications have been neglected in the major English-language journals. Second, I have reviewed a variety of parapsychological ac- tivities so as to provide the reader with insight into the different approaches to psychical research in different countries as well as into the cultural, geographical, and historical factors that have col- ored parapsychology in those countries. Some of the information provided is new and, may I say, very interesting. The different re- search methodologies pursued by the parapsychologists in these countries range from the empirical quantitative approach of the Ar- gentinian group, who follow the Rhinean School, to the theoretical and Spiritualistic approach shaped by the influence of ideglogical and cultural constructs of the Brazilian Spiritists and Cath6ic re- searchers, However, in a way, these different approachesao the study of psychic phenomena are reflections of the cultural n~ieu ir which the research has evolved. Another important feature that emerges from an examin!4ion ol tO mosl the developments of parapsychology in these countries is t~ same Ibero-American researchers are in the main plagued with practical and theoretical problems common to most other cgintrie~ involved in psychical research. Common problems are the grugglt to gain recognition in their own scientific communities and gie lacl of economic means to support research. Still another unfortunate pattern is the isolation of indiv~ual re searchers in these lbero-American countries from their courcwrpart . Same 0 in the English-speaking parapsychological community _ these researchers, such as J. Ricardo Musso and Naum Wreimai from Argentina, have been doing research and publishi4 exter sively since the 1950s but remain virtually unknown outside thei own countries. Very few of the researchers from those Suntrie have ever belonged to the Parapsychological Association. A~rief rt view of the most recent list reveals that even at the preS nt tim CV4 there are very few lbero-American members in the PA, arh)organ zation that claims to be international." It is my hope that this brief summary will bridge the gaOcreatc by the language barrier and will remedy the previous lacklf info ation, thus fostering communication between Ibero-Anitican r in searchers and their English-speaking colleagues. 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