er Approved For ReleasLI82004RW07scOtAt-RDP96-00789ROO2200-640001-7 General, Article ENHANCING HUMAN PERFORMANCE: IT- are PS ap -ri- -h- is !as can @Iin, Call J., ,iog any ical Will ice" An Evaluation of "New Age" Techniques Considered by the U.S. Army by John A. Swets and Robert A. Biork .Unconventional techniques considered by the United States 1: Armyfor enhancing human performance were reviewed during A two-year study by a committee of the National Research Council. Little or no scientific evidence was found to support lJie effectiveness of several, including neurolinguistic program- @@iiig in interpersonal influence and such paranormal tech- Aques as remote viewing and psychokinesis. Mixed results ,,,e,e Neen to characterize other techniques, for example, group- 11hesion procedures. Further study was suggested for a few, *Nding mental practice of motor skills. Guidelines requested Of the committee for future army evaluation of enhancement techniques stressed the needfor, and the conduct of, both tab- ""01Y and field research * The committee recommended fur- 1h11 consideration of mainstream research in the behavioral -rformance enhancements. years ago the Army Research Institute (ARI) 11k1d the National Research Council to assess a field of @Chlliques designed to enhance human performance. As @faclass@ these techniques are extraordinary in that they @ were developed outside of mainstream research in the 1b'bavioral - Qai sciences and are accompanied by strong 1 41S for high effectiveness. The ARI wanted a commit- !e to examine the potential of certain specified tech- liques to recom % mend appropriate criteria for evaluating Uch techniques search , and, where possible, to specify the re necessary to advance understanding of perfor propo 111hancements in areas of behavior related to the t, 'ed techniques. In pursuing this line of investiga vloocn' the ARI was reacting to broad and substantial ad Y In the army of trying to gain large enhancements hum an Performance by any conceivable means. The arrn , - 140re Y s Interests, as summarized by ARI, included efficient learning, improved motor skills, altered A Add cOrrespondence and reprint requests to John A Swets, '@13, 'r1ftek and Newman, Inc., 10 Moulton Street, Cambrid' ge, MA Ni tcl Robert A Biork, Department of Psychology, University of forh,a, LOs Angel*es, C)k 90024. VOL"' '10. 2AewA)9Ad For Release 2001/03/07 mental states, stress reduction, interpersonal influence, group cohesion, and certain parapsychological pro- cesses. More specifically, the army was considering the possibilities that learning could take place during sleep, that learning might be accelerated via packaged programs designed for that purpose, and that motor skills might be enhanced by guided imagery, mental practice, visual con- centration, and biofeedback. Further, it wished to pursue the possibility that mental states could be altered by self- induced hypnotism, meditation, focused concentration, or the integration of activity in the brain's hemispheres, in order to promote periods of peak performance. The army was also interested in whether biofeedback and methods that purport to alter mental states might be use- ful. in managing stress. Certain aspects of interpersonal and group processes were under examination as well, including whether group cohesion, which might be fos- tered by keeping army units intact, enhances group and individual performance. Finally, the army had an interest in such parapsychological processes as remote viewing and psychokinesis, or mind over matter, especially men- tal influence on the functioning of remote machines. It may at first seem strange that anyone in the army was interested in the panoply of behavioral processes and techniques that characterized the countercultural. human- potential movement of the 1960s. However, in the 1980s advocates of such techniques have had success with an approach that is more entrepreneurial than ideological. Moreover, the techniques are presented less as related to general well-being and more as related to specific tasks, such as marksmanship, second-language learning, and sleep inducement. The army is not alone in this interest: Private industry and the general public have also given much attention to these New Age techniques in commer- cially available programs of general training and self help. army's interest in extending hurnan abilities through The parapsycholo ical processes originated primarily in intel- ligence circles rather than in trai-ning circles, but para- : ClAd;@M64"78#ft@22QW0MV-7 85 PSYCHOL061CAL SCIENCE Enh@ncing Human Performance psychology soon became a bedfellow of the unconven- tional training techniques in the army. FORMATION OF THE NRC COMMITTEE In conversations between. Edgar M. Johnson, techni- cal director of ARI, and David A. Goslin, then executive director of the Commission on Behavioral and Social Sci- ences and Education (CBASSE) of the NRC, and in a formal letter request, it was indicated that the ARI lead- ership wanted help, not only to reduce broad pressures on it that had recently intensified, but also with an im- portant national problem of interest to private industry and the public as well as the m-flitary. CBASSE members who evaluated this request included psychologists Wil- liam K. Estes, Ira J. Hirsh, Lauren Resnick, and Stanley Schachter. In response to the request, CBASSE moved to set up a committee especially for the purpose, with suggestions for particular kinds of expertise also from other advisers including psychologists Robert Boruch, Wendell R. Garner, Bert F. Green, and Gardner Lindzey. The first author of this article was enlisted as committee chair and, together with Goslin, he developed the final recommendations for membership that were endorsed by the commission.' Daniel Druckman was appointed as the committee's study director. The Committee on Techniques for the Enhancement of Human Performance (henceforth, the committee) met first in late July 1985. ARI's Johnson along with George Lawrence, its liaison to the committee, arranged for sev- eral speakers at the first meeting, who informed and sometimes perplexed the members. A few speakers de- scribed single techniques, others waxed enthusiastic about the full range of them, and one, a retired general, spoke eloquently of his own extensive psychokinetic powers. General Maxwell R. Thurman was the motivational speaker at dinner the first evening. His graphs demon- strated that in terms of recruits' test scores, the army was doing increasingly better, and also better compared to the other services. His review of the traditional and growing demands placed on soldiers, however, made clear that these demands continued to outstrip abilities by a large margin. THE COMMITTEE'S APPROACH The committee could easily imagine the great difficul ties faced in converting recruits, most of them with min 1. The committee consisted of John A. Swets, chair, Robert A. Bjork, Th@mas D. Cook, Gerald C. Davison, Lloyd G. Humphreys, Ray Hyman, Daniel M. Landers, Sandra A. Mobley, Lyman W. Porter, Michael 1. Posner, Walter Schneider, Jerome E. Singer, Sally P. Springer, and Richard F. Thompson. 86' C-Appkaved4* Release 2001/9?/07: C1A;59P6-00789R002200dft0b c:, A4 14 r'.1 --2- imal education as well as short terms of duty, into diers who possess the personal and social skills need battle as well as the technical skills needed to operate@ maintain complex equipment. It could understand to took beyond slow, narrow, and insufficiently target4 mainstream research on human performance to enha,,, ments that could come from elsewhere. And it was aw., that those in the army responsible for training and ffi S nique evaluation would face di icultie in resPondin,, strong enhancement claims (both by army officer, outside vendors) for diverse and far-ranging tech - IN 111iiqut,, The committee agreed that the general problem deser, objective and thorough examination and was willin,4 initiate such a study. k. Subcommittees were formed on various facets of problem, including evaluation issues, sleep learnina, celerated learning, guided imagery, biofeedback, brain effects, stress management, cohesion, influen, and parapsychology. The committee met as a whole timl6s in 2 years,-in whole or part made ten site visi4 invited twenty or so briefings, and commissioned 2 background review papers. It met twice with source Advisory Group of army officers formed for .3 purpose ARMY BACKGROUND The army's interest in parapsychology is repOrted@ be longstanding, including, for example, sponsorshipq ESP research by J.B. Rhine in the early 1950s. Remot@ viewing experiments were conducted for the army by t4 Stanford Research Institute in the 1970s. A military c0a, cern has been that the Soviets have been active in tk' development of psychic abilities, including the ability W affect the behavior of others through mental telepathy. A' proposal developed in the army for the First Earth Bg.' talion envisioned warrior monks with a range of parapsy.1 2. Ten commissioned papers, available from the National AcWtq' Press, are these: Eric Eich, Learning during sleep; Robert E. Slav@7 Principles of effective instruction; Deborah L. Feltz, Daniel It, Landers, and Betsy J. Becker, A revised meta-analysis of the meow practice literature on motor skill learning; Seymour Levine, Stressai, performance; Raymond W. Novaco, Stress reduction and the militart, Dean G. Pruitt, Jennifer Crocker, and Deborah Hanes, MatchingWl other influence strategies; Boaz Tamir and Gideon Kunda, Culture W@ military performance; James E. Alcock, A comprehensive reviewd, major empirical studies in parapsychology involving random event P, e,,rs and remote viewing; Monica J. Harris and Robert RosentK Interpersonal expectancy effects and human performance resear&@ Dale Griffin, Intuitive judgment and the evaluation of evidence. 3. The Resource Advisory Group consisted of general officers *t held the positions of Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel, Deputy CV of Staff for Intelligence, Director of Army Research and Technoloo.: Commander of the Soldier Support Center, and Commander, Mem" Research and Development Command and as well the Assistantsc@ retary of the Army for Manpower and Reserve Affairs. fO7 2, MARCH I tan( lige I cor. quc me, quic chv are prc atc bo fit] Sul m( ul. V( PSYCHOLOOICAL SCIENCE 7A. 13jork ities allowing them, for example, to leave holOgical abil C , bodies and to walk through walls. (See, e.g., their 1988.) These ideas and enhancement techniques Squires, . ned above were advanced by an infor- Of the sort mentlo 'roup of some 300 army officers known as the Delta Mal 9 (not to be confused with the antiterrorist unit hav- force me). Several other task forces in the army ing tile same na ,,to organized in the 1970s to examine and promote the t.chniques. All influential memo pulling much of this together for the army was written in 1982 by General Thurman, then lieutenant general and deputy chief of staff for person n,I. (Thurman went on to become a four-star general and ,ice chief of staff, and was an architect of the army's very ,Uccessful recruiting campaign with the slogan of "Be all ,hat You can be.") He subsequently led the army's train- ing effort as commander of the Training and Doctrine coolmand. His memo identified "accelerated learning, inferential focus, previsualization, psychokinetics and biokinetics, remote viewing, biophysical stress preven- tiorl, etc." as techniques that should be considered. It was based in part on a half-dozen commercially available techniques that may be characterized as follows. suggestive accelerative learning and teaching tech- niques (SALTT) combine physical relaxation, mental concentration, guided imagery, suggestion, and baroque music to improve classroom performance. The Journal of the Society for Accelerative Learning and Teaching pub- lishes evaluations of applications of SALTT to languagq training, typing instruction, high-school science courses, and so forth. Concentrix designates a specific procedure for training visual concentration on a target, broadly defined, and maximizing hand-eye coordination, balance, body con- trol, and sensory and visualization skills. It is intended for application not only to marksmanship but to the op- eration of complex equipment, movement over long dis- tances with the objectives of reducing fatigue, and intel- ligence gathering. Hemi-Sync,l@ short for hemispheric synchronization, consists of presenting tones of slightly different fre- quency to each ear to produce a beating sound. An EEG- measured brain response follows changes in the beat fre- quency and changing sound patterns are thought to change states of awareness. Recommended applications are for language learning, stress reduction, reading skills, problem solving, creativity, and sleep control. Stress-management techniques are designed to allevi- ate anxiety and tension and are implemented by self-help books and groups and by clinics. They often emphasize fitness, nutrition, and life styles, as well as strategies such as progressive relaxation and image rehearsal. Pro- moters claim an interactive effect and put forth a partic- ular package of techniques. Neuroli nguistic programming (NLP) is intended pri- marily to be a means of exerting influence over others. The skilled practitioner is supposed to be able to deter- mine what representational system (e.g., visual, audi- tory, or kinesthetic) another person is using at the mo- ment-by observing his or her speech, eye movements, and posture--and then to frame communications to that person in terms of the particular representational system in use. A national association is reported to have a mem- bership of about 500 persons. In 1983, an ad hoe subgroup of the Army Science Board, formed in response to General Thurman's memo, issued a report supportive of further consideration of these techniques. The group had been exposed to them in an "experiential workshop format" during a four-day meeting at the Monroe Institute of Applied Sciences, developer of Hemi-Sync. It recommended that formal mechanisms be established to undertake a major effort on "human technologies," that "technologies should be sorted into those which require a scientific base and need verifiable, repeatable data for evaluation versus those which are more analytic representing principles of good practice and are evaluated by consensus, acceptance and overall effectiveness," and, further, that research efforts be managed jointly by the Army Research Institute and the Medical R&D Command. In 1984, ARI, which reported then to General Thur- man, hired a program manager, commissioned review pa- pers on five techniques, and requested of the National Research Council that a committee examine the area. In 1985, ARI initiated research on several of the techniques and reviewed army research in progress elsewhere. THE COMMITTEE'S SPECIFIC FINDINGS Learning During Sleep The committee recommended that the army give sleep learning a "second look." Considering only the sleep- learning literature, there seemed little basis for any kind of positive recommendation. This conclusion was rein- forced in a detailed briefing by LaVerne Johnson of the Naval Health Research Center. When all possible criteria are applied to verify that the learner is truly asleep, there appears to be no evidence of conscious recognition or recall of materials presented during sleep (for a thorough review, see Aarons, 1976). In fact, since the mid-1970s research activity on sleep learning has nearly stopped, at least in this country. The committee, however, was influenced by recent developments in basic research on "implicit memory," "stimulus-driven processing," "learning without aware- ness," and related topics (for reviews, see Richardson- Klavehn & Bjork, 1988; Schacter, 1987; Shimamura, 1986; and the commissioned paper by Eich, footnote 2). A (r%zj 87 VOL. 1, N r"Affive"or Release 2001/03/07 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO2200640001-7 PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE @hhancing Human Performance That research, employing amnesic as well as normal sub- jects, has illustrated that certain indirect measures of memory (for example, perceptual identification, word- fragment completion, procedural skills) can show large effects of prior episodes when conventional recall and recognition measures fail to show any such effects. Viewed in that context, only certain types of learning should take place during true EEG-verified sleep, and learning should show up on only certain types of memory tests. In general, the past negative results were obtained with inappropriate presentation procedures and with test- ing procedures that were insensitive to any leaming that might take place. The committee's primary recommendation was that the degree of learning of materials presented during sleep be examined again as a basic-research problem. Rather than looking at intentional recall or recognition of mate- rial presented during true sleep, the committee urged the army to look for- effects such as lowering of perceptual thresholds for items presented during sleep, semantic or affective biasing in the postsleep interpretation of verbal items as a consequence of their being presented in biased contexts during sleep, repetition effects (enhancing postsleep performance on material studied before the sleep period by repeating the material during the sleep period), and priming effects (facilitating postsleep acqui- sition of material by presenting that material during the preceding sleep period). Recent research on state dependencies in human learning (Eich, 1989) also influenced the committee. If learning during sleep is to some extent state-specific, then it might transfer more effectively to the states of drowsiness and semisleep that accompany exhaustion and sleep deprivation than it does to the normal waking state. Since cognitive performance deteriorates under sleep deprivation, such potential transfer of sleep- training might help the subject when he or she needs it most. Finally, the committee thought that learning that depends on sleep disruption might be examined from a cost-benefit standpoint; procedures that disrupt the quantity or quality of sleep might shorten training or have other benefits that could outweigh their costs. Accelerated Learning The committee focused primarily on one particular learning package, SALTT (Suggestive accelerative learn- ing and teaching techniques.) Literature in the Journal of the Society of Accelerative Learning was reviewed and committee member Schneider attended the society's na- tional. meeting in 1986. The commissioned paper by Stavin provided background information on the teacher's contributions to effective instruction and the paper by Harris and Rosenthal considered the potential contribu- tion of the learner's expectations in the SALTT ment (see footnote 2). The committee concluded that the extravagant Q, for accelerated learning programs are unjustified. fectiveness of such programs did not exceed what be expected on the basis of the mainstream instruct@,W 0 elements (for Iive lea example, imagery, coopera tests as motivational devices and learning event s) embedded in a non-traditional framework includill,k laxation exercises and special music. The commjtt, feel, however, that there was value in the kind Of holisk approach to instruction exemplified by such progra The army was encouraged to use its resources to eva, 14 competing training procedures in order to isolat 4;4 e components of instruction that are effective in army rings. Improving Motor Skills The committee focused on three strategies to enhan, motor skills: mental practice, visual concentration, a,, biofeedback. A background paper by Feltz, Landers, a4 Becker on the mental-practice literature was sOlicited@, the committee (see footnote 2), and there were four brief,' ings: one on peak performance issues, and three by q.4 perts on or promoters of visual-training techniques. h@ , addition, Landers and Bjork made site visits to the he*@ quarters of SyberVisionlg and to the Vic Braden Tenr@ Academy. SyberVision is a highly successful marketerl audio and visual tapes designed to enhance skills suchasi golf, tennis, skiing, bowling, racquetball, and others,@@. Tapes such as "The Neuropsychology of Achievemenri t address more global skills. What is shown on the tal)ell and the instructions to the learner are supposedly guided' by a principle of "neuromuscular programming," which': is in turn derived from Karl Pribram's holographic theoq;' of brain function. The subcommittee interviewed W I brain, director of research for SyberVision, and StepheAl- DeVore, founder and president. With respect to mental practice, defined as "the sy%l@, bolic rehearsal of a physical activity in the absence of any, gross muscular movements" (Richardson, 1967, p. 9@, the committee's recommendations were quite positive. A meta-analysis of the relevant research literature revealed that mental practice yields a gain in performance on tht@,' order of half a standard deviation when compared to a@i. propriate controls. The gain is somewhat greater for rno-,! tor tasks that incorporate a substantial cognitive comp'! nent, and the advantages of mental practice can be' enhanced if physical practice and mental practice are in- It terspersed. The committee recommended that the amyl@ evaluate mental practice as a training component in op, erational military tasks, and that the army pursue basic research to determine what mixture of mental and phys-t cypl C 01 I Oct 'Vic, C tral, Skill 100 skil ICM thel fect is ey.0 ICVL typ is is wit apt Ma Do crc 19: 19@ rec by tel wi ro ps gu W1 lai ul. 88 Approved For Release 2001/03/07: CIA-RDP96-00789ROO220OW9019 . 2, MARCH 19% PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 441@ 141, zt ;ht tal 19, -re -el lid l ic Is. -te @e 't. e 'd )d )y f- . - i;;@ - - I If Jo A. 9wets and Robert A. Biork actice might be optimal (given considerations of Ic @ pi nse, equipm .ent availability, and so forth).' Coe Icerning visual-training programs, the committee Cot ricluided that there was no research base to suggest that' co h training leads to improved performance. There is soc, ce that certain visual abilities can be improved by eviden g the eye muscles, but evidence that attentional 0"in an be enhanced by visual training is lacking. sgills Ccommittee concluded that there remain too many The 00se ends for the relationship between biofeedback and I ance to be determined. Part of the prob- ,illed perform Jern is that biofeedback is often used as part of broader eutic programs that incorporate other, possibly ef therap . ues. Another problem is that biofeedback fective, techniq is used to train physiological parameters (heart rate, for exarnPle) although clear knowledge of the most desirable levels of these parameters with respect to a given skill typically does not exist. In cases where that relationship is known (e.g., hand warmth and finger dexterity), there is evidence of performance benefit. Altering Mental States The idea that people can achieve an internal state that will be optimal for a broad range of performance has been appealing. Some level of arousal is optimal for perfor- Inance of a given complexity (Duffy, 1962; Yerkes & I)odson, 1908) and, specifically, the optimal level de- creases as task complexity increases (Easterbrook, 1959). This concept fits the behavior theories of the 1950s, which specified that a source of energy or drive is required to keep the organism active and was reinforced by the physiological discovery of a diffuse activating sys- tern in the brain (Moruzzi & Magoun, 1949). However, with new knowledge of the variety and specificity of neu- rotransmitter systems (Robbins & Everitt, 1982) and with psychological theory focused on cognition, we have be- gun to think of a large number of cortical computations in widely distributed neural systems (Rumelhart & McClel- land, 1986). The view that cortical computations are mod- ulated by different transmitter systems in varying ways makes it more difficult to suppose that any training tech- nique will provide optimal states for all forms of physical and mental activity. An example comes from. the finding that the optimal conditions of alertness for rapid respond- ing differ from those for the best memory performance (Posner, 1975). Unfortunately, the committee did not find time to ex plore the evidence for the wide variety of specific training or induction methods that might provide a basis for tech- niques for manipulating internal states. It recommended a literature review of links between such techniques and changes in performance and, in its next phase, will ex- amine further the techniques of intensive meditation and self-hypnosis. The committee considered issues of brain asymmetry in detail. It reviewed Hemi-Sync, in part through a visit by Springer, Thompson, Druckman, and Lawrence to the Monroe Institute in Virginia where it was developed. Al- though this technique is said to be valuable in therapeutic settings (pain control in cancer patients, alcohol abuse, retardation, autism, and seizure disorders) and though formal research designs have been approximated for its application in a few educational settings (courses in basic broadcasting, ear training, and introductory psychology), the committee concluded that current attempts to alter performance through coordinating the two hemispheres by an external or instructional device do not appear to be effective. It observed, more generally, that the scientific evaluation of claims for enhancing performance by in- volving the hemispheres differentially awaits the devel- opment of reliable measures of hemispheric activity in individuals. Stress Management The clear thrust of the evidence from various types of research on stress, from animal studies as well as human studies, is that an individual's uncertainty about impend- ing events and sense of control over them are the main factors in perceived stress. This conclusion is supported by the extensive review paper on stress and performance prepared for the committee by Seymour Levine (see foot- note 2). A case in point is the study of hormonal and behavioral responses of Norwegian paratroop trainees as they made repeated jumps from a tower on a guide wire (Ursin, Baade, & Levine, 1978). Initially high elevations of cortisone in the blood were reduced to basal levels after the second jump and fear ratings changed similarly. The implications of this research evidence for the army are complex. There surely are practical limitations on how much knowledge and understanding of the future can be disseminated during combat and on how much individual or group control can be permitted or demon- strated. Moreover, though the committee focused prima- rily on stress reduction, the army must also induce stress during training to prepare soldiers for real combat. A study by Novaco, Cook, and Sarason (1983) showed that providing marine recruits with more realistic information about what lies in store for them, and about the skills necessary for coping with the rigors of boot camp, led them to exhibit higher expectations of personal control and efficacy. 4. Following on that recommendation, an experiment is underway at the Redstone Arsenal in Alabama to evaluate mental practice as a com- Ponent in the training of complex soldering of electronic circuits. Landers guided the design of conditions that will permit a comparison of mental-practice, placebo, and standard training groups. VOL. 1, NO. ?1QJNp W 89 yf" For Release 2001/03/07 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO2200640001-7 PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Enhancing Human Performance The committee reviewed individual and intrapsychic approaches to stress reduction, including arousal reduc- tion (relaxation training and biofeedback), cognitive re- structuring and problem solving, and behavioral skills training. Regarding biofeedback, on which a conclusion was specifically requested of the committee, it was found that although biofeedback can achieve a reduction of muscle tension, it does not reduce stress effectively. Committee members' appreciation of military stress was enhanced by a visit to Fort Benning, Georgia, where they viewed paratroop training (and arranged, and then mercifully aborted, an opportunity for David Goslin to make a jump). They saw Bradley vehicles maneuvering under fire and then rode in one. They also heard a pre- sentation and viewed a videotape on the extraordinarily demanding and stressful procedures of Ranger training, which centers on several weeks of long daily marches over difficult and hazardous terrains under severe envi- ronmental conditions. Influence Strategies The committee's treatment of strategies of social in- fluence centered on neurolinguistic programming (NLP). NLP's wide use in the army was described by army rep- resentative Robert Klaus in two briefings; a background paper by Pruitt, Crocker, and Hanes was recruited by the committee (footnote 2); and Singer, Davison, Mobley, and Druckmann attended a workshop on NLP techniques and interviewed Richard Bandler, one of the developers of NLP. The conclusion was that little if any evidence exists either to support NLP's assumptions or to indicate that it is effective as a strategy for social influence. NLP has also been used as a means to model expert performance and the committee's visit to Fort Benning included a review of a test of this aspect of NLP as ap- plied to marksmanship. Though the committee could find only one evaluation of NLP as a model of expert perfor- mance, and found that one wanting, it did conclude that the investigation of expert models constitutes a worth- while activity for the army, and the continuing committee plans to pursue that topic. Group Cohesion The army is quite committed to developing group co- hesion. Its current COHORT system of keeping units intact is motivated by the desire to enhance group per- formance by increasing group cohesion. The chair of the committee's resource advisory group, Lieutenant Gen- eral Robert M. Elton, and the commander of the Army Research Institute, Colonel William Darryl Henderson, have written in support of it (Elton, 1984; Henderson, 1985). A technical report from the Walter Reed Army Institute for Research points out that civilian scholars as well as senior military officers accept that cohesion in- hibits breakdown, without regard to the .research Co, munity'.s ability to demonstrate relationships ("The N,, Manning System Field Evaluation," 1986, No. 3, P. 9) Peters and Waterman's In Search of Excellence (198,i may represent civilian scholars in this regard, and inde,4 the research community has been supportive to a deg,@ (e.g., Campbell, 1975; Katz & Kahn, 1966). The committee, however, believed that the argurne,,, in favor ought to be treated as hypotheses rather th,, conclusions, citing difficulties in separating cons,, quences and indicators of cohesion, the gap between irn, proved cohesion and better unit performance, the ten, dency to rely on single-factor explanations of grou@ performance, and the possibility of reciprocal effects N. tween cohesion and performance. The current evidenq makes it necessary for organizations seeking to beng, from cohesion to proceed largely on faith; the committe, referred to some possible negative consequences of CO, hesion as reviewed by Porter, Lawler, and Hackman (1975): ineffective handling of deviance, "group think,,, increased impact of any existing negative norms, and increased intergroup conflict. The committee also dis, cussed issues of implementation that it saw as havi4 received little attention. A background paper by Tanti and Kunda (footnote 2) developed implications from the cultural perspective advanced by Schein (1985). Ar Parapsychology The subcommittee on parapsychology made its p6q. cipal site visits to the laboratories of Robert Jahn at Princeton University and Helmut Schmidt in San Auto., nio to discuss experiments on the psychokinetic control of random event generators. Experiments on remote viewing were also discussed at Princeton. Hyman and Humphreys were joined on both visits by Dr. Paul Hor. witz, a consultant to the committee and a physicist w Bolt Beranek and Newman Inc., who had organized a 1979 symposium on "Physics and Parapsychology" for the American Physical Society that included as speakers Helmut Schmidt and Ray Hyman. Also visiting Professor Jahn were Druckman, Lawrence, and Paul Holland, then a member of the committee. Hyman visited Edward May at the Stanford Research Institute to discuss experiments, on random event generators and remote viewing. Hyman and Horwitz were briefed by representatives of the US Army Laboratory Command on parapsychology and rd. itary intelligence; Druckman and Swets were briefed on Soviet parapsychology by representatives of the Arml Foreign Science and Technology Center and the Defense? Intelligence Agency. In connection with a meeting held @ San Diego, the entire committee, kindly accompanied b@ local psychology professors George Mandler and William McGill, visited the laboratory of Cleve Backster who sut 90 Approved For Release 2001/03/07 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO22OjD.6,41MGJM7~RCH19% VOL. 1, PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 3107 CIA-RDP96-00189KOOIZI.Vvolr+vvvl--f @App@roved For Release 200110 John A. Swets and Robert A. 'ork Ti that the electrical activity of a preparation of leu- 9 tes taken from the mouth of a human subjebt re- Ids to the emotional states of the subject, at a later I spol and in a different place. For this visit, the promise to ornmittee, not fulfilled, was an observable demon the @ stration of anomalous events. Visitors to Professor Jahn's laboratory were shown subjects sit in front of one of three kinds of random how t generators and attempt to affect the behavior of the ever e in one of three ways: In the PK + mode, the sub devic .,Ct tries to get a higher than chance level of hits; in PK ,nodel a lower than chance level; and in baseline mode, a ber of hits equal to the chance level. Under volitional "In' the subject is free to select among the three conditions, alodes; under instructed conditions, he or she is not. Horwitz observed that the investigators reported no dif- ferences in results occasioned by a transition from a true ptidom event generator (an analogue electronic device or . nechanical device) to a pseudorandom event generator (a digital, programmed device) that is actually determin- istic and nonrandom. They believed that their subjects could will changes in a voltage or voltage threshold of a noise source or changes in the trajectories of small balls failing down a chute with multiple obstacles and, equally well, changes in certain bits (from zeros to ones or vice versa) of predetermined and otherwise completely repro- ducible@- sequences as generated by an array of shift reg- isters. At his Mind Science Foundation in San Antonio, Dr. Schmidt described an experiment designed to permit a skeptical group of scientists to apply adequate controls to a psychokinesis experiment without destroying the psy- chological environment for a subject that is said by psi researchers to be critical for obtaining positive results. Both groups use a piece of data not yet available (e.g., specified weather data from the New York Times at some agreed upon future date) as a pointer into a given table of random numbers, which will generate "seed numbers" to a pseudorandom number generator and hence produce a predetermined sequence of ones and zeros. Both groups follow a set procedure to assign PK + and PK - modes to the seed numbers and thereby instructions for the sub- ject. An agreement made during the site visit to conduct ajoint experiment with Dr. Horwitz as participant, which would be monitored by the committee, was not followed up by Dr. Schmidt. The committee benefited from a review of the litera- ture on remote viewing and random event generators pre- VOL, 1, NO. 2, MARCH 19% Approved For Release 2001103107 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO2200640001-7 91 The only photograph of committee activities was taken at the February 1986 San Diego meeting. From left to right: Davison, l3jork, Posner, Hyman, Schneider, Swets, Landers, Mobley, Porter, Druckman, Hum- phreys, Thompson, Springer, and Singer. Approved For Release 2001/03/07 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO2200640001-7 ctz 7 d I Approved For Release 2001/03/07 CIA-RDP96-00789ROO2200640001-7 PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Enhancing Human Performance pared for the Army Research Institute by John Palmer and from a review of the same studies that it commis- sioned Alcock to make. The committee also reviewed the other main body of experimental research, namely, on Ganzfeld experiments, in which a homogeneous visual field is used to 'alter states of mind in the interest of receiving psi signals. A paper on intuitive judgment and the evaluation of evidence was prepared for the commit- tee by Griffin (see footnote 2). With particular attention to the three sets of experi- mental studies, but including its other reviews and expe- riences, the committee found no scientific warrant for the existence of parapsychological phenomena. ("No scien- tific justification" was the phrase agreed on with NRC editors for the committee's report, but "warrant" cap- tures better the intended sense.) Though the committee therefore saw no reason for direct army involvement, it felt that monitoring by the army of the main, current, experimental work would be prudent and suitable. If that monitoring led to the proposal of specific studies, the recommendations were that army and outside scientists arrive at an agreed-upon research protocol, that the re- search be conducted by proponents and skeptics, and that attention be given to the manipulability and practical application of any effects found to exist. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The committee observed a pervasive army tendency to accept and implement enhancement techniques on the basis of personal or clinical experience and marketplace popularity instead of on the basis of research evidence that could establish the existence and usefulness of an enhancement effect. 'in expressing its concern about this practice, the committee issued a list of questions about presumed enhancement techniques that had been pre- pared by scientists at the Walter Reed Army Institute for Research: What changes will the technique produce? What evidence supports the claims for the technique? What theories stand behind it? Who will be able to use it? What are its implications for army operations? How does it fit with army philosophy? What are the cost-benefit factors? (Hegge, Tyner, & Genser, 1983). Because strong claims of support from basic research have been made for some of the techniques the commit- tee examined, the committee reviewed in its report what it takesto justify a scientific claim. Specifically, it high- lighted the need to conduct basic research so that infer- ences could be drawn in accordance with scientific stan- dards-inferences about novel concepts, causation, alternative explanations of causal relations, and the gen- eralizability of causal relations. Standards for evaluating field tests of enhancement programs were also reviewed, including such factors as immediate effects, side effects, 92 Approved For Release 2001/03/07 assigning merit and meeting needs, likelihood of transfer and contrast with alternatives. The committee acknowledged the differences betw,,,, rational decision making in science and in practical texts, for example, differences in the benefits of co,,,, decisions and the costs of incorrect decisions and in wh@ _ is viewed as a timely decision. It recommended that N army acknowledge such differences explicitly in conri,, tion with decisions about particular techniques. I t set forth an analysis of the unreliability of testimonies . evidence for enhancement effects. And it stipulated Wh,, it thought would be useful mechanisms for advice to dif, ferent parts of the army as well as bidding procedures it felt would facilitate informed choices of prograrns vendors. The committee recommended that the army continue to examine vigorously enhancement techniques that a@ pear promising. It added the advice that the examinati,, should be systematic and should include technique, drawn from mainstream research as well as packages moted by vendors. A main concern of the committee to link more closely the army's great interest in enhan,. ing human performance and its substantial resources for conducting tests to evaluate techniques. The committee remarked on the potential for transfer to the civilian see. tor. laye Pot 0 Irl lised Itirid walls prese Oil le: COMMITTEE PUBLICATIONS The committee's final report was published as a book by the National Academy Press in early 1988, entitled Enhancing human r rmance: Issues, theon .es, and t-echniques, edited by Druckman and Sw@t-s. @@sec6nd pri-nfi6j_Zs made a year later.) With preliminary copies available, a briefing was given army officials and a press conference was held in December 1987, with Swets, Bjork, Hyman, Singer, and Druckman representing the committee. The press conference was attended by some fifty reporters who heard a 15-minute prepared statenient, and then raised questions for an hour or so. Primary ar. ticles appeared in the New York Times (Leary, 198@, Washington Post (Squires, 1987a, 1987b), Washington Times (Price, 1987), and Los Angeles Times (Gillette, 1987), and articles based on them appeared in many other' Lcal and regional newspapers. Other news articles were @.i published in Science (Holden, 1987), Science News (Greenberg, 1988), Science and Government Report (Greenberg, 1987), APA Monitor (Hostetler, 1988), Ps@ chology Today (Roberts, 1988), The Chronicle of Higher Education (Wheeler, 1987), Beijing's Science and Tech- nology Daily for June 29, 1988, and the NRC's News I Report (Jarmal, 1988). Swets and Druckman co-authord, an op-ed article that was printed in 25 daily newspapers. The press conference was videotaped by NBC, CNN,,, and the United States Information Agency. CNN re-i,, : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO270064(300-lWrRCH III PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE A. Biork Ire,' 2til 104, _11@ 44t, -the ec@ set hs -i it -4d j4e ork .es @0@ Eks or )k 'd Id id small segments for a few days. NBC's camera did playe erate properly so Tom Brokaw's evening news ot OP 0 d f1le footage representing some of the Army's more Use ast interests, for example, in walking through larid 11 Walls, and he commented in kind. National Public Radio resented for a few days an interview with Robert BJork P learning techniques. on PUBLIC REACTION The committee's book was reviewed descriptively un- he heading "Briefly Noted" by Sheldon Zedeck der t) in Contemporary Psychology. It was reviewed ex- (1988 t,nsjvely by Philip Morrison (1988) in Scientific Ameri- can -We appreciated his summary: "Among the most difficult lessons in science is how not to deceive yourself. This patient and judicious overview offers genuine help" 109). Irwin Child (1988), in a review for Choice, com- plimented the exposition of general principles of evalua- tion but noted what he called the report's "bias against xploration of apparent anomalies not yet well attested" (p. 536). Kendrick Frazier (1988) reviewed the book ex- ,nsjvely for the Skeptical Inquirer, with emphasis on paranormal phenomena. Druckman and Swets received several phone calls and letters, many of them complimentary (wanting more in- formation and making suggestions), for example, from the Los Angeles Police Department, and many of them expressing concern over negative treatment of particular techniques. In an interchange of several letters, Wilse Webb argued that we had been too generous to one tech- nique, that sleep learning was not worth a "second look. " The strongest reactions came as expected from propo- tients of the paranormal and these tended to be in letters addressed to Frank Press, Chairman of the National Re- search Council - Robert Jahn, former Dean of Princeton's School of Engineering and Applied Science, wrote that a biased committee made factual errors in reviewing his experiments on mental biasing of random number gener- ators. A copy from Jahn to Senator Claiborne Pell was followed by a letter from Pell to Press. Thl`/@ senator was concerned, among other things, about the possible im- pact of the committee's report on the National Science Foundation, which was said to be reconsidering support of parapsychological research, and he no doubt had in mind his plans to sponsor a bill to create a commission to study parapsychology and other performance- enhancement techniques, a bill co-sponsored by Senators Gore and Kassebaum and now in committee (e.g., News- week, June 26, 1989, p. 8). Not satisfied by the commit- tee's detailed replies to Jahn's letters, Jahn and Pell car- ried their case to the undersecretary of the army, who responded that it would be improper for the army to in- sert itself in this argument and that failing direct resolu- tion with the NRC, resolution could be pursued through scientific forums and journals. The President of the Parapsychological Association, Inc., Richard S. Broughton, also wrote to chairman Press, emphasizing what he and his associates saw as bias in the selection of the committee and an attempt by the committee's chair to suppress a positive evaluation of a set of parapsychology studies. Upon what it considered an inadequate response from the NRC, the association published a lengthy report as a "Reply to the National Research Council Study on Parapsychology." That reply was reviewed in the The Chronicle of Higher Education (Wheeler, 1988) and in Omni magazine (Huyghe, 1989). Similarly, R.A. McConnell of the University of Pitts- burgh wrote Druckman and Swets and then mailed ex- tensively a set of his materials, including his correspon- dence with the NRC and an earlier article by him, Colonel John Alexander (Ret.), one of the briefers at the committee's first meeting, challenged the validity of its report in the periodical New Realities (Alexander, 1989). We should add that the NRC's executive office consis- tently supported the committee's conclusions (and, we 5 understand, put off a potential donor as a result). THE ARMYS REACTION Army leadership was initially concerned about the early publicity, primarily the negative treatment by NBC News. Concern was expressed to and within the army by advocates of specific techniques that had received nega- tive evaluations. Field leaders at first showed limited in- terest, largely through calls by users or opponents of specific techniques. As time went on, the army received favorable comments from several sources about the com- mittee's report and the interest of field leaders increased. One apparently influential event was Druckman's brief- ing of the army's Human Factors Technical Group in May 1988; another was the favorable mention of the re- port in the chief of staff's monthly newsletter. In September 1988, Bjork, Druckman, Johnson, and Swets went to General Thurman's headquarters at Fort Monroe, Virginia, to brief him on the study and to pro- 5. Colonel Alexander, who co-hosted the committee at Cleve Back- ter's laboratory test of the emotional response of Posner's leukocytes, s wrote that the committee denigrated such scientific research by men- tioning also the scientifically unsupported ideas of psychic warfare and psychotronic weapons. Meanwhile, R.A. McConnell wrote that the committee's mention of Backster's research was an attempt to taint legitimate research on parapsychology. We noticed that the Parapsy- hological Association, Inc., did not collaborate with McConnell in its c plaint about the committee's report and that Robert Jahn chose to com keep his adverse reaction separate from that of the Parapsychological Association, Inc. VOL. 1, NO-AppmvedoFor Release 2001/03/07: CIA-RDP96-00789ROO2200640001-7 93 PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Enhancing Human pose directions for further study. That meeting, sched- uled for 45 minutes but lasting 3 hours and 45 minutes, was an exceptionally successful event. Thurman's ideas about follow-on ARI research projects were many and in knowledgeable and authoritative detail. He wanted the committee to continue and gave it a new charter: rather than evaluating others' solutions to soldier-performance problems, it could choose from a list of general problems that the army would generate and develop its own pro- posed approaches. He was impressed, for example, that academic psychology had insights into training for skill retention instead of merely for rapid acquisition. And he offered to arrange the classroom and field resources re- quired for tests of concepts and evaluation of larger-scale applications. General Thurman's comment about the generally skeptical or negative evaluation by the commit- tee of several enhancement techniques, some of which he had personally considered seriously, was "I was listening to my gurus of the time and I was wrong." CONTINUING COMMITTEE ACTIVITIES The second major phase of the committee's activities is now underway. A newly constituted committee met in July 1989 to put the final touches on an agenda that took shape over the 19 months that followed the release of Enhancing Human Performance.' A second meeting at General Thurman's headquarters in April 1989 was espe- cially important in defining the committee's new tasks. The meeting was hosted by Lieutenant General John Crosby, who has assisted General Thurman and the com- mittee throughout its existence; the presentations fo- cused on current uses of self-assessment and other ap- proaches to individual development in the army, on the problems in maintaining high performance in situations of high stress and high risk, and on the problem of detecting deception. Subcommittees were appointed to consider the following problem areas. Long-term retention of skills and knowledge Skills and knowledge gained in army instructional pro- grams are often exercised often a year later. Therefore, the committee will examine procedures thi(t appear to slow the acquisition rate initially but may be optimal for long-term, post-training effectiveness. Included, for ex- 6. Five new members were added to the committee to bolster its expertise in the new problem areas on its agenda. Michelene Chi, Rob- ert Christina, James Davis, Eric Eich, and Francis Pirozzolo joined seven members of the original committee (Bjork, Davison, Hyman, Landers, Porter, Singer, and Thompson), whose expertise remains ap- propriate to the committee's new tasks and who were willing to con- tinue on the committee through the next phase. Bjork replaced Swets as committee chair, Druckman remains as study director, and Judith Orasanu is now the committee's liaison with ARI. ample, are spacing of repetitions during practice stricted feedback on the execution of motor (Schmidt, Young, Swinnen, & Shapiro, 1989), and quiring the learner to perform under conditions of stricted sensory input. Training to optimize performance in special emotional, physical, and environmental states Procedures that optimize the initial rate of acquisitio, are unlikely to be optimal in terms of improving late, performance under conditions of stress and/or restrict,, information. Recent research on state dependencies i, memory (body states, mood states, and environment,, contexts) may have implications for training (Biork & Richardson- Klavehn, 1989; Eich, 1989; Smith, 1988), Training techniques designed in sports psychology to en. hance performance under pressure may have inipli,,. tions for army training programs. Cognitive-motor preparation to perform under pressure Beyond such training issues having to do with the quisition of a skill, there are issues related to perforiniq, at the level one is capable of when it matters. There are indications that certain preparation strategies (such as, mental'rehearsal, or automating pre-performance Moto,! routines) may prime or stabilize the cognitive motor pro. grams that underlie skilled performance. Such strategi may help to induce or maintain bodily states that ar correlated with high performance; recent psychophysio. 1 logical studies suggest that certain patterns of heart-rate and EEG changes in the few seconds prior to the execu. tion of a critical shot or stroke (in golf or archery) are correlated with better performance (Landers, persona]; communication). Models of expert performance The potential of modelling experts was suggested by the committee's prior review of neurolinguistic prograrn. ming (NLP), by research developments, and by devel?p. ments in sports training. In its otherwise fairly negative evaluation of NLP, the committee found promise in the! importance NLP attributes to decoding an expert's be. havior as a guide to training the beginner. Research on the nature of expertise has flourished in recent years Whi, Glaser, & Farr, 1988) and may provide a foundation for training/performance programs. In addition, com- puter-aided representations of skilled performance have apparently been used with some success in sports psy- chology. "Subliminal" methods to enhance mental states As part of recent research activity employing a variety of non-traditional measures of memory (see the earlier @Gd-d4ftd,iMtRCH 1990 VOL. 94 Approved For Release 2001/03/07 : CIA-RDP96-00789RO02 UU PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE re, re, re, tiOn 4ter _,ted S ntal & 88). .en@ Ica@ ac. Ing are as tor ro- ies ire 10- Lte ire ial )y n- P_ ve ie 0- )n ,n I- e John A. Swets and Robert A. Bjork ussion of learning during sleep) that seem sensitive to ing without awareness ("data-driven es of learn typ ssitig,l), there is renewed interest in subliminal rOce acoby & Whitehouse, in press; Marcel, P rnifig (e.g. 9 J lea While such results suggest a new look at the sub- 198 3). i,,,,,I.Iearning issue, a large variety of subliminal tapes d to alter attitudes, enhance confidence, reduce J AoSigne , ties and so forth, have had striking success in the tplacc. Inarke Afanipulating mental, emotional, and arousal states A draft review of the literature on techniques to I Oange niental states, commissioned by ARI and pre ed by J. Brener and S.R Connally, was reviewed by par d Posner for implications for task perfor- prucknian an lance. Research developments in various fields, includ- Ing health Psychology, suggest that altered states of onsciousness may affect a variety of physiological pro- ,sses, . he converse may be true as well; recent work ,ggests t at ood states may be altered by influences on @lood ow that are a consequence of the differing facial Muscular patterns corresponding to various emotional expressions ( ajonc, Murphy, & Inglehart, 1989). ARI, tnoivalel by the problem of detecting deception (Hy- Inan, 1989), has urged the committee to consider also the physical manifestations of mental and emotional states. Career development A class of techniques designed to improve perfor- mance through increased self-insight is widely used in public and private organizations; included are assess- i rnent batteries designed to facilitate leadership, interper- sonal influence skills, team building, and decision mak- ing. Specific examples are the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (Myers & McCaulley, 1985), the Managerial Grid (Blake & Mouton, 1964), and the Social Styles Pro- file (Merrill & Reid, 1981). These techniques have con- siderable appeal to trainers as well as to the trainees be- cause of high "face validity," but they have been subject to little rigorous research, To help define the questions, the committee commissioned Paul Thayer to write a crit- ical review of the relevant literature. Part-whole methods to enhance group processes At its first meeting the continuing committee became convinced that certain issues of group performance de- served study. Should the members of a working group be trained as a team or individually? If team training facili- tates initial performance, is that. advantage offset by greater disruption when original members of the team need to be replaced by new members? Should the indi- viduals in a group be trained in only their task, or should there be backup training to increase the flexibility of the group? Current research. may not supply definitive an- swers to these and a number of related questions, but the issues are important enough to army functioning to be addressed, if only to clarify the questions and to outline needed research. CONCLUSION Although other arrangements might be workable, we found that the National Research Council provides an ideal setting for a study of this sort. The Council was designed expressly for the purpose, first under the spon- sorship of the National Academy of Science and now administered as well by the National Academy of Engi- neering and the Institute of Medicine. The NAS was chartered by Congress in 1863; the NRC was established in 1916. Among the NRC's strengths are that it spans the scientific and professional disciplines; it benefits from the prestige of its governing academies; it provides in com- petent fashion the services required by committee func tion; and it follows guidelines to promote thorough and objective reports, including procedures for proposal and report review. Committee members are suggested by broadly based advisers, proposed by a commission's staff and executive director working with the committee's chairperson, nominated by the commission, and ap- pointed by the NRC's chairperson in the interests of com- petence, relevance, and diversity of viewpoints. They are asked to verify that they have no conflict of interest and they serve without financial compensation. Members of the committee generally regarded their task as challenging and they demonstrated consistently that it was engaging. They came to the meetings almost without exception, made site visits willingly, submitted draft sections of the report nearly on time, and achieved consensus in an advised, efficient, and congenial way. They feel that their training and experience were ade- quate to the task and they are pleased to recommend the process to psychologists and scientists in related fields. The continuing committee can reasonably anticipate that it will contribute more by steering the army toward prom- ising new ways to enhance training and performance and less by saving the Army from investing in ineffective techniques. It will likely also serve an advisory role for some specific enhancement projects undertaken in the a 'rmy. A long-term, successful impact of the committee's work, in both of its phases, is hardly assured. The power of the human-potential movement in the minds of the citizenry, as evidenced by its marketplace popularity, dwarfs the force of mainstream psychology. New Age techniques are also apparently making substantial in- roads on the more than $30 billion a year that the Amer- ican Society for Training and Development estimates to be spent on formal courses in industry (Wall Street Jour- VOL. 1, NO. 2, MARCH 1990 95 Approved For Release 2001/03/07 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO2200640001-7 PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE F,nhanc'iDg Human nal, August 5, 1986). The army, of course, will continue to have serious needs for performance enhancement and will continue to be bombarded by strong, new claims for existing and new techniques. The lack of theoretical and empirical support for many such techniques does not sti- fle their ability to capture the imagination of consumers. Still, the Condon Report of 1968 on unidentified flying objects was cited recently (Alexander, 1989) as continu- ing to depress the government's interest in that subject, and we note that the Condon Committee had nothing positive to substitute. 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SG1 I dr lv@ t-,61 / @- pte('@, 61,1110 --@ , , I .)W @@ D /19 Y" -1 tf_ f, , @ __@7 f Approved For Release 2001/03/07 : CIA-RDP96-00789ROO2200640001-7